Editor's note: Text source D311 section 3.2.3
Agriculture
Grazing is a driver of LEDD in several ways. In Portugal, for example, the relationship between wildfires and pastoralism was studied by Catry et al. (2010), who found that shepherds used fire primarily to renovate pastures for livestock use. Thus, grazing has an influence on fire occurrence. On average, pastoral activity was found to be responsible for 20 percent of all wildfires and for 11 percent of the total area burned. Shepherds used fire mainly to burn shrublands (78 percent) and forests (18 percent) (Catry et al. 2010).
In 2005, the introduction of cows to rural areas in Portugal, the Portuguese side of the study area and to a lesser extent the Spanish part of the Study area, was mainly driven by the provision of subsidies and has led to a dramatic increase in soil erosion (Imeson et al. 2006). The subsidy does not take account of the optimum stocking density of the land, the fodder production capability of the pastures or the water balance, so overgrazing triggers land degradation processes. Another important factor is soil compaction caused by livestock trampling. The fragile soils are not able to withstand the impact of trampling by cows, where traditionally pigs, sheep and goats were raised. As a consequence, erosion rates have accelerated.
In the final report of MEDALUS I (1993), agriculture is identified as the major cause of environmental degradation in this area. The extension of agricultural lands, logging and the practice of burning land are drivers that lead to the degradation and loss of many dehesas and montados. At present, most dehesa and montado forests are found in rural areas with low population densities, in areas of rugged relief or in hunting grounds. Within the dehesa and montado system, livestock grazing and, to a lesser degree, agricultural practices are an inherent part of the conservation of the system. So, agriculture is not a driver of LEDD when it is appropriately managed. Farming practices have traditionally favoured the maintenance of oak and cork trees, thanks to the wise exploitation of the system.
The identification of drivers for LEDD in the dehesa and montado systems is still under investigation. In general the main processes are identified as anthropogenic (air pollution), biotic (pathogens) and climatic factors (Gil Pelegrín et al. 2008). The economic profitability of the agro-silvo pastoral systems is usually low and could be seen as a socio-economic driver. The Mediterranean character of the climate (dry summers and somewhat cold winters), and the low fertility of the soil, make arable farming unsustainable. This is why the dehesa has arisen as the only possible form of rational, productive and sustainable land use. It does not try to maximize the output of any particular product. The dehesa and montado systems are diverse systems in which there are agro-, silvo- and pastoral activities. This is acknowledged as the ability to successfully satisfy human requirements from the Middle Ages up to the twenty-first century (Olea and Miguel-Ayanz 2006).
Forestry, wood extraction and energy demand
Wood extraction from dehesas and montados in the Baixo Guadiana is mainly used for firewood. Traditionally, the wood of the Holm oak is seen as one of the best for use in wood burning stoves, and in the study area this is still the main source of heating. The cork oak, mostly found in the montado on the Portuguese side of the study area, provides a good source of revenue as cork can be harvested approximately every 9 years.
Extractive activities (mining)
In the Baixo Guadiana intense mining activity reached its peak when the São Domingos mines were operating around the beginning of the twentieth century. The trees and shrubs of the dehesa and montado were used to produce charcoal for mining purposes (Roxo and Casimiro 2004). Now, however, this has practice has stopped and no longer has a direct influence on the forest.
However, the Iberian Pyrite Belt, which touches the north of the Baixo Guadiana area, is one of the most important volcanogenic massive sulphide ore deposits in the world (Delgado et al. 2010). Mining activity in this area extends back to the Bronze Age (Davis et al. 1999). Many mines closed during the mining crisis in the 20th century but as a result of changes in global markets, some mines have reopened and commenced commercial activity once again. Despite the current low level of mining activity, acid drainage of mines in the Guadiana Basin continues and causes environmental pollution in the area (Delgado et al. 2009).This type of environmental pollution has led to ongoing ecosystem degradation.
Tourism and recreation
For many years, tourism has been one of the main drivers of the Spanish economy. During the Franco regime, tourism was strongly promoted in many parts of the coastal zones of Spain. Coastal urbanisation quickly developed and modifications were made to the coastal margin (Baigorri 1999). In 1975 a tentative evaluation was made of the tourist areas affected by processes of desertification with the estimate at that time of 1.7 million ha being affected.
Spain received 51,748 million tourists in 2002 (WTO 2002) which makes Spain one of the top countries in the global tourist industry. The annual income from the tourist industry in 2002 was 33,809 million USD. According to a pan-European study by Jones and Hughes (1993) and data from the European Commission (1995) overall wetland losses exceeding 50 percent of original area have been reported by France, Greece, Italy and Spain. One study cited by EEA (2001), however, suggests that three quarters of the sand dunes between Spain and Sicily have disappeared as a result of urbanisation linked to tourism development.
The WWF report, Freshwater and Tourism in the Mediterranean (De Stefano 2004), mentions that important wetlands, including Ramsar sites of international importance, are being destroyed by tourism activities. France, Greece, Italy, and Spain have already lost half of their original wetland areas. Tourism near Spain’s Doñana National Park in the province of Huelva, is competing with the park’s wetlands for already scarce resources.
A recent project (2008- 2011) to develop the area in the Baixo Guadiana, called ‘sustainable tourism in the Lower Guadiana’, aims to promote trans-border cooperation in developing tourism in a sustainable way. The natural capital of the area has been recognised as a key asset in the sustainable development of the area. Most tourism is found in the coastal zones, especially in the Algarve.
Urbanisation
In Portugal, over 28,000 hectares of agricultural, forest and other semi-natural and natural land was developed between 2000 and 2006. Fifty percent of the land area was taken from forests and 40 percent from agricultural land (SOER 2010). It has been estimated that Spain has built more housing units than France, Britain and Germany combined during the last decade. The amount of new housing reached 687,523 units in 2010. If the renovation of existing houses is also taken into account, the number of housing units totalled 1.1 million. In the western Andevalo area, the growth of urban areas is one of the main land use change issues. Close to the coast and near the town of Ayamonte, a new urban area named ‘Costa Esuri’ has been built, which occupies some 950 ha. Approximately 6,000 apartments have been built, along with two golf courses. This will significantly increase pressure on limited water resources. Moreover, approximately 600 ha of the total area has been constructed in a NATURA 2000 protected area.
Deforestation
In Portugal, currently the most common cause of deforestation is the destruction of shrub vegetation for cereal cultivation and pasture. Clearing of holm oak and cork oak trees (Quercus ilex and Q. suber) is strictly forbidden by law (Roxo and Casimiro 2004).
Forest fires
Forest fires are a major problem in Spain and Portugal. Although there are large variations from year to year, on average between 60,000 and 150,000 ha are burned each year in Spain. In 1994, the figure was over 400,000. Concern has been expressed over the effects of global warming on Spanish forest ecosystems, in as much as the predicted warmer, drier climate is likely to cause more fires and also the desertification of some zones of southern Spain (FAO 2011). Portugal was affected by severe forest fires and in 2003, approximately 400,000ha were burned. In 2005, some 190,000ha of forests were damaged in Spain (JRC 2007). Montiel and Herrero (2010) have shown that fire risk is higher in zones where human presence and related activities are close to forest fuels and could ignite fires; the so-called Wildland Urban Interface zones (WUI). In Spain, these zones cover approximately 2 percent of the land area and account for approximately 1,100,000ha.
In the last few decades there has been a significant increase in forest fires in both Portugal and Spain. Several socio-economic factors, including the increasing recreational use of forests and land accessibility, contribute to this trend. In Spain and Portugal, more than 95 percent of forest fires are ignited by humans, and most fires occur in the summer months when the climate is hot and dry and when tourism is at its peak (Catry et al. 2010). Wildfire risk was analysed in Portugal by Moreira et al. (2009). They found that shrublands were the most fire-prone land cover, whereas annual crops, permanent crops and agro-forestry (Montado) systems were the least fire-prone.
The Alcoutim municipality forest fire records between 1980 and 2002 show an occurrence of 10.31 fires a year with an average burnt area of 92.74 ha. (PROT Algarve annex D 2006). In recent years, in the Baixo Guadiana study area forest fires have occurred, but have mostly not affected large areas. This is due to several factors. For instance, often there is little fuel in the landscape, there are no dense forests. The forest fires that have been witnessed in recent years where accurately stopped by the fire brigades. One aspect that can be highlighted is that access to water, the Guadiana River, is nearby.
Climate change
Concern has been expressed over the effects of global warming on Spanish forest ecosystems, inasmuch as the predicted warmer, drier climate is likely to cause more fires and also the desertification of some zones in southern Spain (FAO 2011). According to meteorological records in the study area, a trend of declining precipitation can be observed between 1932 and 1996 (Do O’ and Roxo 2001). Future climate change will act to amplify existing water stress, with important consequences for the availability and distribution of water between different land uses (ADAM 2009). Changes in climatic conditions also enhance other risks to forest resources, especially through increased tree mortality and land degradation (SIAM 2001). This is a particular issue, as the rise in temperatures will increase demand for outdoor recreation, with forests and woodland areas having the potential to provide suitable conditions and micro-climates for a range of activities (ADAM 2009). More tourism leads to a higher risk of pollution and forest fires, amongst others.
Policies
The Baixo Guadiana is part of the international Guadiana river basin, in which the river Guadiana serves as the natural border between Portugal and Spain. Unilateral management decisions and policies concerning this drainage basin clearly have an effect on both countries. The scientific monitoring and management approaches used in this area are substantially different between Spain and Portugal. In the light of these discrepancies it is not easy to define which policies have contributed to, or alleviated LEDD. In the Baixo Guadiana, the recent emergence of new trans-boundary arrangements has acted as a stimulus for greater cross-border cooperation and represents considerable potential for enhanced collaborative activity in the future. However, many obstacles to sustainable resource management and environmental protection still remain in this particular trans-boundary context. This viewpoint is reinforced by feedback during ADAM stakeholder workshops (Mertola, Portugal 2006 and Seville, Spain 2009) which have highlighted the lack of integrated initiatives (ADAM 2009).
Policies related to forest management in the Baixo Guadiana area are derived from different departments and different levels, international, national, and regional. Some policies related to agriculture also are related to reforestation measures in order to control erosion, such as the program ‘Desarollo Rural de Andalucia 2007-2013 (PDR) (development of rural Andalucia), which was approved on 20 February 2008. The measure 216, is denominated to ‘ayudas a las inversions no productivias´ (support to non productive inversions) (BOJA 2009). The program is supported by FEADER (Fondo Europeo Agrícola de Desarrollo Rural), created by the regulation (CE) nº 1290/2005. In this program the establishment of vegetation and island forests are supported. The rationale behind the island forest in relation to LEDD, is that these island forest protect the cultivations from wind, reduce erosion and minimize one of the greatest problems in the world; desertification (Fernández and Aparicio 2004).
The main forest policies derive from ‘Adecuacion del Plan Forestal Andaluz, HORIZONTE 2015. After careful analysis of the forest evolution in the Autonomous Community of Andalusia, this new plan has been adopted as the planning tool for 2008-2015. The plan will provide new directions and guidelines for decision-making in sustainable forest management, both at international level, the European Union level and at the State Administration and the Autonomous Community of Andalusia. This program will also evaluate its effects on the environment in accordance with the provisions of Law 9 / 2006 of April 28, the evaluation of the effects of certain other plans and programs related to environmental and regional development policy. The document also has adequate consideration of impact on the ´Plan with Land Planning´ (Plan con Incidencia en la Ordenación del Territorio) to be included in forest planning activities in paragraph 13 of Annex I of the Law 1 / 1994 of Planning of the Autonomous Community of Andalusia.
The most recent changes in forest landscapes over the past 20 years are related to the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) (Van Doorn 2007). Among the range of Programmes financed by the Portuguese Government and the EU under CAP, the most important related to forests is CAP Follow-up Measures; specifically EU Regulation 2080/92: forestation of agricultural land (Do´ O and Roxo 2006). Financial support from the CAP became available for Portuguese agriculture in 1985. This included revival of livestock breeding (especially sheep), and cereal cultivation. Later, afforestation programmes for less favoured areas (part of the second pillar measures of the CAP) gained importance for some areas in the Alentejo. Although forestation tends to be a positive response to LEDD, the practical application of these policies may be less straightforward. In order for areas to have been considered as agricultural land, it was a pre-condition that they received subsidy from regulation 2080. As a result, many land owners cleared their properties of vegetation, in areas where recovery was already taking place as a result of land abandonment (Do’ O and Roxo 2006) This in turn led to increasing land degradation. The practices of forestation also contribute to LEDD through clearing of existing vegetation cover, heavy soil mobilisation, compaction, inadequate planting techniques, and incorrect species with no natural regeneration and high tree densities that increases fire risk. Another important policy in relation to land use changes is, the PAMAF Programme.
Other relevant policies in the Portuguese side of the Baixo Guadiana area include the regional planning of territory, the PROT (Plano Regional de Ordenamento do Território). In the Baixo Guadiana both the PROT of the Alentejo and the Algarve apply. Within the PROT there are several different themes that are related to forest management, amongst which is the PROT on desertification which is linked with the National Action Plan of Portugal (PANCD).
In relation to forest fire management, the recent findings of the European Project Fire Paradox (2010) show that the catastrophic forest fires in Portugal and in Spain have increased the awareness of policy-makers. However, the adoption of political measures is often an ad hoc in reaction to a situation that has already developed, and does little to mitigate further problems (Sande Silva et al. 2010).