-- Messara Valley SES

General description of Messara Valley SES

2012-09-07T06:30:32+00:00

Authors:	Constantinos Kosmas, Mina Karamesouti, Thanasis Kizos, Katerina Kounalaki, Minas Metaxakis
Editors:	Alexandros Kandelapas, Vassilis Koutsoukos, Jane Brandt

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 26Nov2012. Content source: D131-2.3{/xtypo_alert}

Location

The Messara valley is located in the central-southern part of Crete, about 50 km south of the city of Heraklion and constitutes the most important agricultural region of the island.

While, the hilly and mountainous areas of the valley were covered with forest in the past, most of these forests are now cultivated with olives, vines, vegetable, fruit and cereals. Groundwater is a very important resource affecting crop production and the local economy.

Climate

Messara valley is characterised by dry sub-humid climate with mild moist winters and dry hot summers. Average annual rainfall ranges from 750 to 1000 mm.

Potential evapotranspiration in the Valley ranges from 1481 mm to 1549 mm yr-¹. The eastern part of the valley has the lowest ETo values.

Topography and soils

Altitude in the Messara valley is lower than 400m and a large part (39%) is characterised as almost flat. Major types of landforms are composite landforms (36.4%), level land (39.5%) and sloping land (22.4%).

Geology

Geologically the valley is characterised by marl deposits (49.6% of the area, mainly cultivated with olives) and alluvial deposits (23.3%) which are the most productive soils intensively cultivated with olives, vegetables, and citrus. Due to the low rainfall in the area the soils are well/moderately well drained. The soils formed on residual parent materials classified mainly as Cambisols (76.4% of the total area) are characterized by their advanced degree of erosion. The agricultural potential of these soils present limitations due to sloping terrain, shallow to moderate soil depth, moderate fertility and excessive drought during the dry season.

Soil texture throughout the valley is mainly characterized as moderately fine. The lowland is mainly characterized by deep and very deep soils. The surrounding hilly area of the valley is characterized mainly by moderately deep and moderately shallow soils. Rock fragments content in the soil surface varies. Soil drainage is clearly related to the topography of the valley while very well drained soils is the major class of soil drainage (74.1% of the area).

Hydrology

Based on the hydrological boundaries and land use, the valley comprises of two main catchments: the western Messara catchment area (the Geropotamos River discharging near Phaestos) and the eastern Messara catchment area (the Anapodaris River discharging near Demati area). Water flow in Geropotamos is estimated at 14 million m³ per year and the river remains almost dry during the summer period. Anapodaris is the longest river in Crete, discharging about 40 million m³ per year. The main source of irrigation water in Messara Valley is groundwater. Nine main water reservoirs have been identified in the study area, with a total water storage capacity of approximately 25 million m³. The Faneromeni irrigation water reservoir, has a capacity of 19,670,000 m³.

Ecosystem

{tip
Spatial distribution of ecosystems defining according to Millennium Ecosystem
Assessments categories in the Messara Valley. Source: (LEDDRA project)} {/tip}

The Messara Valley is predominantly a cultivated ecosystem: 64.6% of the area is covered by olive groves.

Small parts in of the lower and western part are characterized for their unique biodiversity (2.0% of the total area).

Population

Population in Messara over the last 50 years has remained relatively stable, exhibiting, however, a 2% decrease since 1991, which may be partly explained by migration towards the urban center of Heraklion. While population density in Messara, including the communities of Gagales and Protoria, has generally increased, the wide base of the population pyramids in 1960s and 1970s has been replaced by a broadening of the upper age classes in the pyramid. Decreasing birth rates and rising levels of life expectancy for both sexes coupled with the return of the migrants in the 1990s.

Population ageing in Messara and the communities of Gagales and Protoria is more severe than in the former Heraklion prefecture and Crete in general.

Employment

Farming is the main source of employment (27,4%) followed by commerce and repairs (14%) and manufacture (8,3%). Unemployment rate in the study area has doubled since 1991 although it remains of the lowest nationally.

The Union of the Agricultural Cooperatives of Messara (EAS Messara) is union of 46 local cooperatives with more than 15.000 members. In addition, the 2nd degree cooperative, the union of Agricultural Cooperatives of Heraklion (AGRUNION), is one of the larger agricultural cooperatives in Greece. The Agricultural Cooperatives of Peza (PUC) specialising in wine and olive oil is also active in the area.

Local administration

The administrative structure is evolving, having undergone two major reforms in the last 15 years. Currently, the head of the Region is elected for a four year term and the region incorporates the four regional units (former prefectures) of Chania, Rethymnon, Heraklion and Lassithi. The city of Heraklion (the capital of the prefectural area), is the seat of the majority of the financial and administrative services and offices of the island.

Messara is located in the central part of the former Heraklion prefecture and includes the municipalities of Phaistos and Gortynas (east), Archanes-Asterousia and Minoa Pediados (west) and Asterousia (south). The study includes 72 mostly flat municipal districts which until 1997 were self-governed municipalities or communities.

Infrastructure

Heraklion has an extensive road network divided in primary roads (European and regional), secondary roads (prefectural) and in tertiary roads (local and rural). Systems of optical fibers have been installed along the northern coastline of the island in order to support the high-speed avenues of communications. Generally, the telecommunication services supplied are held by the central connection stations of Hellenic Telecommunications Organization (OTE).

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Education, health and social infrastructure is deemed adequate having undergone significant expansion during the last decade, primarily through the European Social Fund. The area is also serviced by the city of Heraklion. Infant and day care facilities operate in all municipalities. Several municipalities and the church operate facilities for the elderly including homes, day care centers (KIFIs) and services to the elderly at home. Family ties are also crucial for the support of the elderly.

LEDD issues in Messara valley

The most important LEDD problems in Messara Valley are:

Soil erosion in the sloping land
Water erosion in areas cultivated with vines, particularly during spring.
Tillage erosion which has evolved into a serious cause of land degradation in the last decades, after the introduction of heavy powerful machines for cultivation of the land.
Soil salinization in the lowland.
Increasing water consumption for irrigation and tourism, which has greatly contributed to over-exploitation of ground water.
Chemical deterioration of water, attributed to fertilizers applied in agriculture affecting both surface (phosphates, nitrates) and ground (nitrates) waters.
Intrusion of brackish water in the aquifers due to overexploitation.

All of the above interrelated issues lead to land degradation and desertification. Critical areas to desertification cover 21.2% of the Valley, although the majority of these areas are not in extreme risk of desertification.

Evolution of the Messara Valley SES

2012-09-07T06:30:06+00:00

Lead authors:	Constantinos Kosmas, Giovanni Quaranta
Contributing authors:	Aikaterini Kounalaki, Mina Karamesouti, Eleni Briassouli, Minas Metaxakis, Vassilis Detsis, Thanasis Kizos, Theodoros Iosifides, Alexandros Kandalepas
Editor:	Alexandros Kandelapas

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 5Aug13: Source D132-2.1. The full content of the original report could be used to provide more detail{/xtypo_alert}

Based on the Messara Valley story line, the following three major states or transitions of the SES have been distinguished according to their environmental, economic and social characteristics, the major LEDD issues that were faced and the responses applied.

Cereal moderniation period (1950 to 1970)

During the cereal modernisation period, traditional agriculture was the main sector of the economy in the Messara Valley. Farms were based on the cultivation of cereals and vines. There were small gardens with a few animals, sufficient to satisfy local needs for vegetables, meat and milk. The exploitation of natural resources was moderate. Soil erosion in the sloping areas was limited due to sustainable cultivation of the land (using contour farming in shallow soil less than 15 cm deep). Chemical fertilizers were very limited and manure was the main organic input to the soil for increasing nutrient availability to the growing plants.

The rural population increased. Migration to urban areas was rather limited. The transport network and medical facilities were of low quality. Mechanization of agriculture was low. Central national programming and planning dominated without consideration of local administration needs.

Olive transition period (1970 to late 1980s)

Significant changes occurred during the olive transition period, related to cultivated crops, intensity of land use, degradation of the environment, population characteristics, and new economic sectors. The expansion of cereals in more favourable areas (on mainland Greece) accompanied by increasing production through the introduction of new improved varieties, led to land use change in Messara Valley from cereals to olive plantations. The climate and soil conditions greatly favoured the installation of olive plantations which provided higher incomes for the farmers. The majority of vineyards that had been destroyed by phylloxera were replaced with new resistance varieties. Cultivation of early vegetables and the use of greenhouses was greatly expanded. There was moderate exploitation of water resources. Several wells were drilled in the area for irrigation of olives and vegetables. The previous multi-cropping traditional farm structure changed to mainly single-cropping systems.

Mechanization of agriculture following the introduction of tractors and other cultivation tools changed the traditional way of land management to a more intensive exploitation of natural resources. The traditional sustainable contour ploughing of shallow soils was replaced with non-sustainable deep ploughing in various directions, causing severe erosion problems. The amount of chemical fertilizers applied to crops rapidly increased since they were subsidized by national funds. Pest, disease and weed control by chemicals also widely expanded. Services offered by the Ministry of Agriculture at regional level introduced new technologies in crop production.

In addition, tourism development began with intensive growth of tourist facilities mainly along the coast, offering the opportunity for new jobs. Transportation by sea and air, connecting Crete with Athens and other European countries, improved taking local products safely and quickly to the main markets.

Rural population slowly declined with the domestic and international out-migration. The infrastructure changed, improving the transport network. Manufacturing activity was low. Agriculture was not seen as an attractive employment option. The regional and local level of administration was not effective in the area. Central national programming and planning dominated, without consideration of the local administration needs.

Olive subsidy period (late 1980s to circa 2010)

The olive subsidy period was greatly affected by the accession of Greece to the European Union. Olive plantations were further expanded, replacing areas cultivated with annual crops and eventually covering the majority of the Messara Valley. Orange plantations and greenhouses for vegetables expanded, mainly in the lower part of the valley. The expansion of olive and vine plantations were favoured by the EU subsidies.

The amounts of fertilizer applied further increased until the last decade when farmers realized their negative impacts on the environment and the increased production costs and started to reduce their use. Drip irrigation was expanded to cover almost the whole valley in order to increase crop production. The over-exploitation of the aquifers resulted in the construction of small reservoirs to increase water availability.

The intensification of agriculture resulted in accelerated rates of soil erosion in the hilly areas. Pollution of the aquifers became an important issue due to over-use of fertilisers, pesticides and herbicides. Land desertification caused by salinization in the lower part of the valley and soil erosion in the sloping areas became an important issue. Organic farming and integrated land management practices were established in some areas.

There was an expansion and modernisation of the transport network, medical facilities, elementary and secondary schools and small agricultural factories processing agricultural products.

Population growth almost stabilized. Immigrants from foreign countries increased, offering cheap labour and keeping many farms active. Ageing of the population continued.

The local economy was affected by the CAP subsidies. Tourism grew significantly because of improved transport connections. The importance of the agricultural sector declined, especially in the last decade, because of increasing tourism development. A local tier in administration and policy planning was introduced, but it is still under strong central government control. Former informal networks have been corrupted and new ones built up.

More details ... each period is fully described in the following articles

Cereal modernization period (1950 to 1970)
Olive transition period (1970 to late 1980s)
Olive subsidy period (late 1980s to circa 2010)

Cereal modernization period (1950 to 1970)

2013-10-08T10:21:52+00:00

Authors:	Aikaterini Kounalaki, Mina Karamesouti, Eleni Briassouli, Minas Metaxakis, Vassilis Detsis, Thanasis Kizos, Theodoros Iosifides, Alexandros Kandalepas
Coordinating authors:	Constantinos Kosmas, Giovanni Quaranta
Editors:	Alexandros Kandelapas, Jane Brandt

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 20Mar14: Source D132-2.2.{/xtypo_alert}

Assessment of natural, economic and social capitals

Natural capital
Assessment	During this period soil capital in Messara is generally high and very high. Soils are deep or very deep soils (soil depth greater than 100 cm), and generally flat (slope gradient 0-6%), classified mainly as Cambisols or Fluvisols. {tip Distribution of soil capital in Messara Valley: 1950-1970}{/tip} The main water resources are the two aquifers in the bottom valley and some springs located in the valley walls. The total water quantity is estimated to be up to 555 Mm³ and is of high capital value. {tip Vegetation capital in Messara Valley: 1950-1970}{/tip} The dominant classes of vegetation capital are low and moderate, covering 62.0% and 19.8% of the total area, respectively. Such areas are mainly covered with complex cultivation patterns of annual crops (annual and perennials) or complex patterns of annual crops and natural shrubby vegetation. Very high class of vegetation capital covers 16.9% of the total area representing mainly olive groves or vineyards. There is moderate climate capital (88%) during this period, possibly attributed to high aridity. The western part of the valley, along the coast, has lower climate capital due to lower annual rainfall and higher aridity.
Critical functions	Regulation of hydrological processes (assessed by estimating surface water runoff). Areas of low hydrological regulation processes (infiltration rate lower than 70%) are mainly located in the northern part of the valley with the steepest slopes. The lower part of the Messara Valley has a high or very high ability to regulate hydrological processes (infiltration rate over 85% covering more than 95% of the total area). {tip Regulation of hydrological processes: 1950-1970}{/tip} Surface energy balance: More than 62% of the Messara Valley has a low surface energy balance, due to cereals providing limited plant cover during the summer months. Soils under cereals are almost bare, adversely affecting surface energy balance. Moderate and high surface energy balance covers almost 37% of the total area and are mainly covered with olives, vines, or natural shrubby vegetation. Primary production. Relative production for cereals, vines, and olives (measured production over maximum production defined for the area in kg/ha) is significantly related to soil depth, with production higher in the lowlands, for all crops.
Critical variables	Environmental fast and slow variables are soil depth (slow variable) and land use change (fast variable). Soil depth decreases slightly, mainly in the hilly areas. Expansion of olives at the expense of cereal cultivation is the major land use, expanding from 18.2% of total land area during the late 1950s to more than 38% in 1974.

Economic capital
Assessment	Produced capital: Rural Crete continues to depend on the primary sector and the subsistence economy. Rural migration peaks in the 1960s. Tourism gradually emerges. Financial capital is in short supply, with limited bank credit. Limited exports, remittances from migrants and gradually the tourism economy begins to provide cash. Landesque capital: infrastructures for cereal processing are important. Modernisation of infrastructures for olive processing is limited. Irrigation technologies are largely absent. Physical capital is limited to few and small olive mills and cheese making units. While internal transport infrastructure is minimal, significant improvements are made to the port and airport of Heraklion. Schools are located in the bigger settlements. Technology: Some mechanisation (tractors) is already evident since the 1960s. Animal (livestock), plant and forest capital is characterised by the gradual shift from arable land to olive plantations.
Critical functions	Critical economic functions are the lack of credit and the limited available cash. Linkages with the social functions, including extended family networks, dominate.
Critical variables	Produced capital in the form of agricultural production (mainly annual crops) is a fast variable, typically changing annually, depending on climatic conditions. Physical capital remains a slow variable, gradually picking up pace towards the end of the period. Landesque capital and plant capital show slow and gradual change as olive plantations replace cereals, accompanied by a gradual change in available technology (irrigation).

Social capital
Assessment	There is a small decline in demographic capital. Out-migration increases towards urban centers of Greece, as well as other countries of northern Europe. Human capital, in the form of formal education is extremely low. Informal human capital, however, is strong: production is based on local practices and arrangements with minimal mechanisation and market relations. Cultural, social and institutional capital (slow variables) is strong, centered around the family unit and kinship-based social networks. Institutional, political and decision-making structures and very centralized and follow a top-down approach
Critical functions	The most important critical functions are related to the pervasiveness of bonding social networks based on kinship (extended families) and the christening of children (koumparies).
Critical variables	Social variables are slow and ultimately depend on pervasive social networks based on kinship (extended families) and the christening of children (koumparies)

The main LEDD problems and responses

{tip
Sensitive areas to desertification in Messara Valley: 1950-1970}{/tip}

Soil erosion is a problem for hilly areas in the northern part of the valley and largely absent in the lowland or in sloping areas with adequate vegetative cover. Areas with nil annual erosion rates (lower than 0.5 t ha-¹ year-¹) cover 84.4% of the total. Land desertification begins to emerge as problem as more than 70% of the area is sensitive to desertification.

The main responses are

Land use change from cereals to perennial crops (mainly olives and vines). Olive grove expansions is favoured not only by climatic conditions and the olive trees' minimal requirements but also the massive rural migration. Vines on the other hand require much more active engagement on the part of farmers and expand to a lesser degree. Land use change as a response generally has positive effects on critical ecological functions: hydrological regulation improves due to the decrease in surface water runoff and recharging of ground water aquifers increases. Surface energy balance also improves.
Traditional farming persists among the remaining farmers during the period with positive results due to sustainable management at the household level in order to ensure long-term self sufficiency. In sloping land the tradition of ploughing parallel to the contour lines (10-15 cm depth) and only when the soil has specific moisture conditions, helps prevent problems.
Burning cereal straw emerges as a negative response during the second half of this period, increasing in parallel with mechanization as the presence of straw creates problems to ploughing tools.

Policy context
{xtypo_alert}AK: to check that implementation, impacts and effectiveness of selected policies are discussed in this text. Look at D142 to see if there is any additional information. {/xtypo_alert}

Policy implementation takes place in the context of post-WWII reconstruction and the struggle of the central government to solidify its power over regional interests; and the aftermath of the Civil War (1945-1949), culminating in the military dictatorship of 1967-1974. Growth during the period is kick-started through external assistance and significant investment in electrification, telecommunications, water and sewage works as well as an expanding education system.

Main policies in effect are development policies focused primarily on the growth of tourism through support to transport (ports, airports) and cultural (museums, archaeological excavations) infrastructure. While tourism within the Messara Valley is limited, the rapid growth of Heraklion and the northern coast of Crete brings about the growth of several related industries such as construction, transport and services which provide significant sources of employment and pluri-employment for rural populations. Modernization efforts in the agricultural sector include FAO's region-specific Study of Water Resources and their Exploitation for Irrigation in Eastern Crete (published in 1969-1972) much of which is centered around irrigation of the Messara plain and, in particular, the area around Tympaki. The results of the programme, including assessment of available water resources, proposals for the Faneromeni reservoir, groundwater extraction, irrigation networks and proposals for olive tree and vegetable cultivation, are put on hold after the 1973 oil crisis to be continued in the 1980s, when financing becomes available through various EU policy instruments. Centrally implemented policies begin to support cereal production in the larger plains of mainland Greece, also undermining Messara's productive structure. The limited scale and application of these policies prevent their functioning as drivers of or responses to LEDD during this period. However, the continuation of these policies in the following decades, did give rise to LEDD problems.

Properties of the system

{xtypo_alert}AK: to check if there is any further relevant information in D133{/xtypo_alert}

Robustness of natural capital (assessed based on soil characteristics and the vegetation cover type) is generally low: any severe lack of rain water during the growing period results in disappearance of cereals. The lower part of the valley has much higher robustness due to the presence of deep soils cultivated mainly with perennial crops. Diversity of land cover is relatively low. Redundancy is generally moderate: the farming economy is based on a mixture of cropland cultivation (various crops) and husbandry. Cropping systems in the area are moderately connected: cereal production is tightly connected to husbandry and fields with spare olive trees are connected to vine cultivation.

{tip
Natural capital robustness: 1950-1970}
{/tip}

Concerning the openness of the system, nutrient fluxes are estimated to be extremely limited in the beginning of the period but growing steadily as fertilizer industries grew elsewhere in Greece, providing relatively cheap fertilizers. The rise in the importance of olive oil exports also opens up the nutrient cycles. If the rapidity of the ecosystem to respond to disruption is considered with regard to natural disaster such as fire, cereals can fully recover in one year but olive trees require at least three or four years for full recovery.

The economy of the area is characterized by a strong degree of subsistence. Farming is the dominant occupation of most households in the area although a certain degree of openness for a part of the products (mostly cereals) can be ascertained, pluri activity is widely practiced. In this sense, the system can be characterized by a high degree of redundancy. For diversity, non-monetised economic activity offsets the dominance of the agriculture sector.

Social capital of the area is characterized by these powerful kinship networks, based on extended families and the christening of children (koumparies), with far reaching political and economical influence. Messara farmers maintain such networks with shepherds of the Asteroussia or Psiloritis mountains moving livestock into the plains during the winter. These transhumance networks provide networks with localities outside the geographical limits of the plain, mostly the bridging type of social capital. Demographically, a smaller decline in population (especially compared to other similar rural areas in the region and Greece in general) indicates rather limited out-migration, but the population ages.

Socio-ecological resilience

{xtypo_alert}AK: to be added, source: D133{/xtypo_alert}

Socio-ecological fit of the dominant response to LEDD

{xtypo_alert}AK: to be added, source: D133{/xtypo_alert}

Olive transition period (1970 to late 1980s)

2013-10-09T12:15:38+00:00

Lead authors:	Constantinos Kosmas, Giovanni Quaranta
Contributing authors:	Aikaterini Kounalaki, Mina Karamesouti, Eleni Briassouli, Minas Metaxakis, Vassilis Detsis, Thanasis Kizos, Theodoros Iosifides, Alexandros Kandalepas
Editor:	Alexandros Kandelapas

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 9Oct13: Source D132-2.2.{/xtypo_alert}

Assessment of natural, economic and social capitals

Natural capital
Assessment	Soil capital is generally high or very high, although some decline becomes evident, due to soil loss (surface water runoff)or soil displacement by (tillage erosion). {tip Distribution of soil captial in Messara Valley: late 1980s - 2010}{/tip} The water capital remains generally high, except in Messara's lower aquifer. Annual total water quantity in Messara Valley is estimated at around 555 Mm³, depending on amount and distribution of rainfall. Water quality is mainly high but problems of salinity have been identified in the coastal aquifer. Vegetation capital during the period increases and is generally high, as (low capital) cereals are now completely replaced by perennial olive trees. {tip Vegetation capital in Messara Valley: late 1980s - 2010}{/tip} Climate capital remained moderate.
Critical functions	Regulation of hydrological processes and surface energy balance increase due to increased plant cover by olive groves. {tip Hydrological process regulation, Messara Valley: late 1980s - 2010}{/tip} Olive oil production shows a great spatial variability with the most productive areas located in the lowland area and the least in the north-western part of the valley. Over the three periods, olive oil production shows a decline in areas of high productivity and an increase in areas of low productivity. Messara Valley is highly productive with regard to the production of vines.
Critical variables	Annual soil loss due to water and tillage erosion in Messara Valley (a slow variable) is estimated between 0.01 mm to 9 mm depending on the land characteristics. Loss of soil in areas with consolidated parent materials (limestone, flysch, inter-bedded marls) can strongly affect plant productivity. The change in land use (a slow variable) is completed during the period: olive groves expand from 38.4% of the area of the study site in 1974 to 90.9% in 2010. In this context it is important to note that olive trees are extremely suited to the area and under semi-natural conditions (even drought) support remarkable diversity of flora and fauna as well as protection from erosion and desertification. Climate is dry sub-humid exhibiting a slight decreases in mean annual rainfall after 1975 and an increase in average annual air temperature (0.2-0.4 °C) Water resources (a fast variable) came under severe physical, social, economical and environmental pressure. Surface and groundwater availability is decreasing in the lowlands. Water quality is also deteriorating due to combination of nitrate pollution and salinization. {tip Changes in ground water level of the upper aquifer of Messara Valley during the period 04/2005-04/2008 (Source: Regional Administration of Crete)}{/tip}

Economic capital
Assessment	The tertiary sector now produces most of the GDP in Crete and Heraklion reflecting the dominance of tourism. However, Messara retains some of its primary sector due to the (by now, almost complete) conversion to olive plantations. Olive plantations have the advantages that they may be managed by absentee owners while retaining symbolic value as family assets. Financial capital expands to unprecedented levels due to Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) subsidies and credit from public and private banks. Standards of living rise significantly. Agricultural investment (in technology, machinery) increases. Landesque capital also increases to include mainly olive mills, new irrigation infrastructure (plastic) and green houses. Physical capital increases greatly with regard to transport and quality of life infrastructures and to a lesser degree to productive infrastructures (vegetable packaging units in the Tympaki area, olive mills and small cheese making units). Technology increases in irrigation (drills and small pumps) and transport (exponential increase in number of trucks). Since the late 1990s information and communication infrastructure has also expanded For animal (livestock), plant and forest capital, olive plantations now constitute the main capital along with sheep and goats. Between 1991 and 2001 the number of sheep and goats almost double, although more recently it has fallen again.
Critical functions	Critical economic functions include the wide availability and affordability of credit.
Critical variables	Critical economic functions include the wide availability and affordability of credit.

Social capital
Assessment	Demographic capital remains relatively stable, with inflow of foreign migrants offsetting ageing. Formal human capital increases with regard to formal education, although it becomes apparent that there is an absence of formal agricultural training and education, as agricultural practices and technologies shift and local knowledge is lost. The characteristics of cultural and social capital persist. As agriculture is transformed however, these networks are often redeployed in connection to party politics and most notably access to mechanisms for the allocation of CAP subsidies. Finally, the characteristics of institutional capitalbegin to change as local and regional government acquires more competences.
Critical functions	Cooperation networks between farmers and shepherds wither and are partly replaced by competition for natural and/or economic resources.
Critical variables	Cooperation networks between farmers and shepherds wither and are partly replaced by competition for natural and/or economic resources.

Identification and assessment of the main LEDD problems and responses to LEDD

{tip
Sensitive areas to desertification in Messara Valley: late 1980s - 2010}{/tip}

Soil erosion is relatively low in the valley owing to adequate protection of the soil by olive trees. Nevertheless, small numbers of plantations high soil erosion (until plant cover exceeds 45%). Land desertification becomes a serious problem.

{tip
Field with tillage erosion due to the installation of olive trees}{/tip}

{tip
Severe problems of land degradation and flooding in lowland area where there
is tillage erosion upslope}{/tip}

{tip
Soil loss due to tillage measured as a difference in the soil surface around the tree trunk and the
cultivated part}{/tip}

In older groves, tillage erosion is present in areas where mechanical equipment is being used, reaching losses of up to 50 cm during the last 40 years.

The main responses are (a) intensive cultivation of the land (negative), and (b) integrated land management (positive).

{tip
Spatial distribution of ground water pollution by nitrates in the Messara Valley}{/tip}

Ground water pollution is another major problem, especially when ground water is used for drinking purposes. The main source of pollution is the applied fertilizers and pesticides especially after 1970s. High amounts of fertilizers are used in areas cultivated with vegetables. Based on the land characteristics and land management practices of the Messara Valley, the risk for ground water pollution by nitrates is mainly characterized as moderate.

The main national response to nitrate pollution consists of the identification of sensitive areas and application of specific programmes of measures as foreseen in EU regulation 91/676. Messara, however, is not on the list and no local/ regional responses have been applied.

Areas sensitive to land desertification widely expand in the area.

{tip
Fragile area sensitive to desertification}{/tip}

{tip
Critical area sensitive to desertification}{/tip}

{tip
Area not threatened by desertification}{/tip}

The main responses to land desertification during the olive-subsidy period are:

intensive cultivation of the land (negative),
integrated land management (positive),
expansion of irrigation,
water harvesting.

Expansion of irrigation by drilling wells and pumping water from the aquifers of the Messara Valley started in the previous period and continues in this. In addition to drilling wells, three medium size water reservoirs are built. A dense distribution network is installed and water is transported in the hilly dryland areas, improving significantly crop production. However, expansion of irrigation results in over-exploitation of aquifers and intrusion of brackish water with adverse consequences on soil salinization in the lower western part of Messara Valley.

The period is characterized by the main political projects of the EEC/EU (single market, monetary union). In this context, Greece is also part of trade liberalization on a global scale. Liberalization of credit markets and low interest rates are a defining feature of the period.

Various reforms take place, most notably with regard to devolution. The first elections for head of prefecture (previously appointed) take place in 1994. A large-scale administrative reorganization occurs in 1997: communities and municipalities in the Messara study site are reduced from over 50 to 9 and then to 4 in 2010.

The first Regional Framework for Spatial Planning of Crete is approved in 2003 followed by several Special (sectoral) Frameworks for Spatial Planning at the national level. Nevertheless, spatial planning for the study site remains problematic due to conflicting provisions of the regional framework (promoting agricultural land use, containment of urban expansion) and the sectoral frameworks (large scale land-use change for hotels and renewable energy installations). The policy is also hampered by the lack of bottom-up political demand from municipalities to prepare and institute local planning instruments.

Development policies continue to dominate primarily through the EU structural funds. Large scale investment in roads, ports and telecommunications takes place. Although investment is largely concentrated in the main cities (in this case Heraklion) there is a general improvement in connectivity with rural areas. Hospital, school and university infrastructure also improves and research and social programmes expand. Road works are the main recipients followed by rising investment support for small enterprises.

Regional aid finances a series of projects in the area including water treatment facilities, schools and General Spatial Plans. However, such efforts are hampered by:

chronic inabilities of the administration with regard to project development, cases in point being the reservoir without irrigation networks and water management arrangements (Faneromeni) and the treatment plant without sewage network (Tympaki);
successive reorganizations of governance structures (and therefore beneficiaries) influencing project development.

Overall, Messara receives a small fraction of regional aid directed towards Crete. However, investment in the region and the growth of the 1990-2008 period is visible in the study site. Tourism and construction grow, transport (road) and communication infrastructure improves and the agricultural sector benefits from the competitiveness of the greenhouse cluster of Messara. Support for expansion of tourism infrastructure (hotels and rooms) extends to the Messara coast and is complemented by construction of second homes for affluent Cretans and other Greeks. In this way, tourism continues to be related with other sectors, most notably the construction sector, shops and restaurants. At the same time, trade liberalization brings about a a gradual reorganization of local supply chains to cheaper "imports" from Athens and abroad.

In agricultural policy, the 1990s see a continuation of the subsidy system introduced in the 1980s based on quotas. The decoupling reform is finally implemented in 2005, based on "rights" acquired between the 1999-2001 period. From the outset, implementation of decoupling is faced with the lack of cadastre (an official land registry) and poor previous book-keeping. Cross-compliance, although instituted by law, remains poorly enforced.

The transition from subsidies to rural development is evident: investment support for agricultural holdings from 1994 onwards fuels "hard" investment in greenhouses around Tympaki and along the coast. Other provisions of rural development regulations, such as agri-environmental measures, remain non-implemented. The implementation of the LEADER approach since 1990, has an impact both in terms of investment and in the emergence of new actors and methods for rural development.

Technological improvements in groundwater extraction, credit availability and rising water demand (for tourism and agriculture) give rise to the need for water use regulation. Partial implementation throughout the 1990s means a proliferation of groundwater extraction without general water management plans. Depletion and salinization of the aquifer has been well documented by the Regional Water Department, but political incentives for the containment of the practice are weak, until 2008 and 2009 when further extraction water extraction is banned in approximately 60% of the Messara study site.

Legislation for urban wastewater quality generally applies to settlements over 3,000 inhabitants and remains irrelevant for the small settlements of Messara, despite the dramatic increase in wastewater during the summer months.

Horizontal environmental policy, with "approval of environmental terms of operation" as the main instrument is also in operation although no investments or public works are known to have been rejected on environmental grounds. Controls and inspections are extremely limited. Strategic environmental assessment is only recently implemented with regard to the Regional Operational Programme 2007-2013. Although the document highlights road construction as major threat for the Cretan environment, all evidence shows that road construction remains the main activity to be financed in Crete and Messara.

Policies as LEDD drivers: The non-implementation of formal spatial planning functions as a development strategy at the national and study site level. In the absence of formal constraints, all land is available for development, fuelling both local real estate markets and the construction sector. The greatest driver of LEDD in Messara is rural development policy. Support for improvement of agricultural holdings takes place in a vacuum of environmental control or any effort to coordinate resource use (water and soil).

Increasing EU and global trade drastically improves the availability and deployment of agricultural supplies and machinery. These products and methods however are often unsuitable for fragile farming terrain such as Messara. For example, the use of tractors on hilly slopes is a major factor for erosion. The same trade dynamic also puts increasing pressure for competitiveness and intensive resource use upon farmers.

Development policies such as the investment law and the EU structural funds also have a significant impact in the conversion of agricultural land to urban development by providing a variety of financial means for such development.

Policies as responses to LEDD. The Messara study site is largely unaffected by environmental policies, as their implementation has been inadequate. Attempts at water management by the Regional Water Directorate throughout the 1990s largely fall through, resulting in escalating scarcity and prompting a general ban on all new water extraction in 2008.

In the intersection of water, rural development and regional policy, the availability of finance means that technical solutions enjoy a general advantage over other responses to address LEDD problems. Thus, from 1994, the construction of reservoirs is aggressively promoted by formal and informal networks active around rural and structural funds management and public works. The consideration of alternatives or other long-term strategies and responses is extremely limited.

At the same time, one should note that rural development policy allows the emergence of new actors and methods of collective organization which may have a lasting influence. New forms of pooling of resources emerge both in the public (municipalities forming development agencies) and private (producer groups in organic farming or extrovert cooperatives) sectors. These forms of cooperation are facilitated and motivated by access to EU funds but the social mechanisms they entail may be replicated and/or redeployed in other fields or for the achievement of wider local objectives.

Properties of the system
{xtypo_alert}AK: to check if there is any further relevant information in D133{/xtypo_alert}

The robustness in natural capital of the area under existing vegetation cover and soil characteristics shows a varying ability to retain the critical function of primary production. The lower part of the valley exhibits moderate to high robustness while the sloping areas are characterized by low robustness.

{tip
Natural capital robustness: late 1980s - 2010}{/tip}

Land cover diversity values decline sharply in the olive subsidy period as the site is turned to an almost uniform olive orchard. Redundancy of cropland, based on the type of cropping and agricultural systems, is mainly characterized as low. Traditional agricultural systems are replaced by mono-cropping olive plantations. Connectedness is generally moderate. Openness is high as intensive agriculture under market conditions prevails. Areas covered with olive groves are characterized by low rapidity in recovering (three to four years).

{tip
Area with moderate robustness to severe drought}{/tip}{tip
Area with low robustness to severe drought}{/tip}

The shift towards a more open and market-oriented state continues as does the shift towards services as the dominant source of employment. Ageing of the population also continues. Transport facilities continue to improve due to unprecedented availability of public investment. Two important changes include CAP subsidies and credit from banks and investment programs.

Strong bonding social capital (family and kinship) persists and is intertwined with clientelist political networks granting access to CAP subsidies. This seems to contribute to a lack of trust, more antagonism and conflict and general distrust within the agricultural sector and towards all public institutions.

Institutional structures remain centralized for most of the period, with weak regional/local administrative structures. There is a low level of trust in formal institutions of local/regional government and cooperatives. Recent attempts at regional/local administrative restructuring retain strong continuities with the past.

Socio-ecological resilience
{xtypo_alert}AK: to be added, source: D133{/xtypo_alert}

Socio-ecological fit of the dominant response to LEDD
{xtypo_alert}AK: to be added, source: D133{/xtypo_alert}

Olive subsidy period (late 1980s to circa 2010)

2013-10-09T12:54:05+00:00

Lead authors:	Constantinos Kosmas, Giovanni Quaranta
Contributing authors:	Aikaterini Kounalaki, Mina Karamesouti, Eleni Briassouli, Minas Metaxakis, Vassilis Detsis, Thanasis Kizos, Theodoros Iosifides, Alexandros Kandalepas
Editor:	Alexandros Kandelapas

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 9Oct13: Source D132-2.2.{/xtypo_alert}

Assessment of natural, economic and social capitals

Natural capital
Assessment	Soil capital is generally high or very high, although some decline becomes evident, due to soil loss (surface water runoff)or soil displacement by (tillage erosion). {tip Distribution of soil captial in Messara Valley: late 1980s - 2010}{/tip} The water capital remains generally high, except in Messara's lower aquifer. Annual total water quantity in Messara Valley is estimated at around 555 Mm³, depending on amount and distribution of rainfall. Water quality is mainly high but problems of salinity have been identified in the coastal aquifer. Vegetation capital during the period increases and is generally high, as (low capital) cereals are now completely replaced by perennial olive trees. {tip Vegetation capital in Messara Valley: late 1980s - 2010}{/tip} Climate capital remained moderate.
Critical functions	Regulation of hydrological processes and surface energy balance increase due to increased plant cover by olive groves. {tip Hydrological process regulation, Messara Valley: late 1980s - 2010}{/tip} Olive oil production shows a great spatial variability with the most productive areas located in the lowland area and the least in the north-western part of the valley. Over the three periods, olive oil production shows a decline in areas of high productivity and an increase in areas of low productivity. Messara Valley is highly productive with regard to the production of vines.
Critical variables	Annual soil loss due to water and tillage erosion in Messara Valley (a slow variable) is estimated between 0.01 mm to 9 mm depending on the land characteristics. Loss of soil in areas with consolidated parent materials (limestone, flysch, inter-bedded marls) can strongly affect plant productivity. The change in land use (a slow variable) is completed during the period: olive groves expand from 38.4% of the area of the study site in 1974 to 90.9% in 2010. In this context it is important to note that olive trees are extremely suited to the area and under semi-natural conditions (even drought) support remarkable diversity of flora and fauna as well as protection from erosion and desertification. Climate is dry sub-humid exhibiting a slight decreases in mean annual rainfall after 1975 and an increase in average annual air temperature (0.2-0.4 °C) Water resources (a fast variable) came under severe physical, social, economical and environmental pressure. Surface and groundwater availability is decreasing in the lowlands. Water quality is also deteriorating due to combination of nitrate pollution and salinization. {tip Changes in ground water level of the upper aquifer of Messara Valley during the period 04/2005-04/2008 (Source: Regional Administration of Crete)}{/tip}

Economic capital
Assessment	The tertiary sector now produces most of the GDP in Crete and Heraklion reflecting the dominance of tourism. However, Messara retains some of its primary sector due to the (by now, almost complete) conversion to olive plantations. Olive plantations have the advantages that they may be managed by absentee owners while retaining symbolic value as family assets. Financial capital expands to unprecedented levels due to Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) subsidies and credit from public and private banks. Standards of living rise significantly. Agricultural investment (in technology, machinery) increases. Landesque capital also increases to include mainly olive mills, new irrigation infrastructure (plastic) and green houses. Physical capital increases greatly with regard to transport and quality of life infrastructures and to a lesser degree to productive infrastructures (vegetable packaging units in the Tympaki area, olive mills and small cheese making units). Technology increases in irrigation (drills and small pumps) and transport (exponential increase in number of trucks). Since the late 1990s information and communication infrastructure has also expanded For animal (livestock), plant and forest capital, olive plantations now constitute the main capital along with sheep and goats. Between 1991 and 2001 the number of sheep and goats almost double, although more recently it has fallen again.
Critical functions	Critical economic functions include the wide availability and affordability of credit.
Critical variables	Critical economic functions include the wide availability and affordability of credit.

Social capital
Assessment	Demographic capital remains relatively stable, with inflow of foreign migrants offsetting ageing. Formal human capital increases with regard to formal education, although it becomes apparent that there is an absence of formal agricultural training and education, as agricultural practices and technologies shift and local knowledge is lost. The characteristics of cultural and social capital persist. As agriculture is transformed however, these networks are often redeployed in connection to party politics and most notably access to mechanisms for the allocation of CAP subsidies. Finally, the characteristics of institutional capitalbegin to change as local and regional government acquires more competences.
Critical functions	Cooperation networks between farmers and shepherds wither and are partly replaced by competition for natural and/or economic resources.
Critical variables	Cooperation networks between farmers and shepherds wither and are partly replaced by competition for natural and/or economic resources.