-- Zhang Jiachong SES

General description of Zhang Jiachong SES

2012-09-07T06:30:32+00:00

Authors:	Xiaoping Chen, Bo Hu, Honghu Liu, Feipeng Ren, Zhigang Wang, Pingcang Zhang
Editors:	Alexandros Kandelapas, Vassilis Koutsoukos, Jane Brandt

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 15Feb13: Source D131-6.3{/xtypo_alert}

Location

Zhang Jiachong watershed is located in Zigui County of the Hubei Province, China. It is populated by a total 176 of families (620 people, 248 labourers)

Climate

The watershed belongs to the subtropical continental monsoon climate zone, with an annual average temperature of 18°C and annual precipitation of 1181.1 mm, with rainfall concentrated from May to September.

Topography, soils and hydrology

The terrain is hilly with a lowest elevation of 175 m, and a highest elevation of 532 m. Around 75% of the territory has an altitude between 200-400m. Slopes are generally facing South-west (22%), West (20%) and South (20%) The prevalent slope gradient is 35-60% (41% of the area).

{tip
Altitudinal range in Zhang Jiachong small watershed}{/tip}

{tip
Distribution of soil depth classes of Zhang Jiachong small watershed}{/tip}

Zhang Jiachong watershed soil is mainly silica soil developed by the parent material of granite.The most common soil depth class is 15 to 50 cm (85%).

The minimum water level of the Zhang Jiachong river is 65.08 mm. Maximum water level (recorded in July) is 65.15 mm. Maximum flow discharge is more than 25 m³/s (July) but generally less than 5 m³/s. Sediment yield concentrates between May and September and exceeds 1kg /(m³.s) in July and August. Sediment yield is zero in the other months.

Ecosystems and land use

Zhang Jiachong small watershed is a terrestrial ecosystem, including 4.63 hm² of forestland, 14.29 hm² of horticulture farms, 44.11 hm² of urban or built-up land and 98.96 hm² of croplands. The most common vegetation coverage is between 50% and 100% (88.3% of the watershed area). The rest vegetation cover is ranging between 30% and 50%.

{tip
Land use in Zhang Jiachong small catchment in 2010}{/tip}

{tip
Spatial distribution of terraces in Zhang Jiachong in 2010}{/tip}

Population, employment and income

Population is increasing from 569 in 1989 to 620 human beings in 2010, with a clear majority of female inhabtants. Population density is 473 people/km², concentrated in the village of Chenjiaba. The birth rate is higher than the death rate, the dependency ratio is stable and net immigration is positive.

Both gross income and total expenditure are increasing, but the former remains higher than the latter.

Zhang Jiachong has a village hospital but no school. Education level is relatively low.

33% of the population are farmers. Unemployment is estimated at 27% but that includes children and old men.

The village office in Chenjiaba manages all Zhang Jiachong watershed issues for the farmers.

Particular LEDD in Zhang Jiachong

{tip
The comprehensive conservation measures in Zhang Jiachong small watershed}{/tip}

Major land uses in 2010 were forestland (4.63 hm²), horticulture farms (14.29 hm²), urban or built-up land (44.11 hm²) and cropland (98.96 hm²). Terraces cover 82.16ha, including 70.96 ha for economic forest and 11.2 ha for grain production.

Sheet erosion and gully erosion affect 0.97 km² or 60% of the total area. the modulus of soil erosion in this area is 6705 t/(km².a). Soil loss is the main factor for land degradation.

The drivers and biophysical impacts of soil loss in Zhang Jiachong small watershed are the same as Zigui county.

Comprehensive control measures have been adopted covering an area of 88.7 hm² drastically improving land production capacity. By converting 25.5 hm² sloped farmland to terrace, 5.6 hm² to economic fruit forest, 10 hm² to tea garden, 5.6 hm² to soil and water conservation forest and 5.6 hm² to closing hillside for erosion control. Measure and works also include: 3 water storage pools, 1 pond, 8 check dams, 20 sediment deposition pools, 1.1km creek drainage, 4.0 km field drainage and installation of 130 biogas digesters.

{tip
Comparison of Zhang Jiachong small watershed before and after treatment}{/tip}

While soil and water loss is over 80%, the total amount of soil erosion has declined from 6705 t/km².a to 1050 t/km².a. Farmer’s income and life quality is improving. After applying comprehensive control measures, net income per farmer has tripled.

Evolution of Zhang Jiachong SES

2012-09-07T06:30:06+00:00

Author:	Pingcang Zhang, Honghu Liu, Jiang Min
Coordinating authors:	Constantinos Kosmas, Giovanni Quaranta
Editors:	Alexandros Kandelapas, Jane Brandt

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 20Mar14: Source D131-17.1{/xtypo_alert}

Three major states of the SES can be distinguished, based on environmental, social, economic, responses, LEDD issues, and political characteristics.

Population Boom (1949 to 1979)

After war and population decline, agricultural production quickly returns to pre-war levels. Agricultural cooperatives integrate decentralized agricultural labour, while pre-war land use patterns remain, albeit with more intensive cultivation. Despite adverse soil topographic and climatic conditions, soil erosion is a minor issue.

The improvement of public health conditions and economic development supports population growth which is not matched by agricultural production, leading to food shortages. Centrally planned responses to the problem include massive land reclamation, family planning, as well as gradual industrialisation. Agriculture however retains a considerable portion of the labour force.

At the same time, the State-led economy, under Party instructions, creates a massive increase in demand for resources resulting in environmental degradation. A large area of arable land is damaged by mining and resource reclamation. Inefficient land reform and the introduction of pesticides also leads to the pollution of water and soil.

Growth of industry (1980-2000)

This period is marked by expansion of agricultural and pastoral land and misuse of pesticides and fertilizers, while soil erosion processes facilitate soil contaminants entering the water. Eutrophication and groundwater pollution spreads. Virgin forests disappear rapidly under the combined effect of natural (climate) and human pressures while grass destruction in the North and West increase dust weather in northeast China. Virgin forest in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River are replaced by pine forest and other plantations, reducing the capacity for water and soil conservation. Basin-wide floods and droughts mark the late 1990s.

A slowdown in population growth brings a balance between food production and total grain demand but agricultural income declines. Surplus rural labour migrates to the cities.

At the same time, reforms and opening up to private enterprise and foreign investment change the economic sphere. The rural exodus supports labour availability for the growth of manufacturing, infrastructure and service industries. It also boosts consumption of manufactured goods by the urban population creating a virtuous economic cycle.

The rural exodus dynamic is further reinforced by the governmental adjustment of high inflation in the 1990s which causes food prices to decline sharply and deal a further blow to farmers’ incomes. Competition between industry and agriculture for limited water sources also emerges.

The period is characterised by dramatic land uses changes as cities, residential and industrial areas expand. Demand for arable land declines due to loss of labour.

Food overproduction, inefficient use of agricultural land and the devastating floods of 1998 create the conditions for the implementation of the "Grain-for-Green" project. The State Council issues "Several opinions about reconstruction, remediation rivers and lakes and irrigation" and “Regulations for the Implementation of Soil Conservation Law of the People's Republic of China” which form the basis for the "Grain-for-Green" project.

Factory of the world (2001-present)

China becomes the veritable factory of the world. The government still stimulates exports and controls food prices, in effect encouraging farmers to abandon agricultural production. The role of agriculture in the national economy is eroded. Industry, finance, real estate and service industries replace agriculture as the main source of tax revenue. Food production shrinks further and abandoned land expands as the number of farmers falls. Biofuels and other grain-consuming enterprises put further pressure on grain demand and urbanization accelerates, reducing suburban agricultural land. As a result food security emerges again as a problem. For example, in 2004 Shandong province, a former soybean exporting region becomes the largest overseas buyer of soybeans form Brazil, Mexico and Argentina.

The population is relatively stable in the southeast coastal areas but population ageing emerges as an issue.

Environmental problems have grown to the point where they severely affect the economy itself: dust weather and salinization threaten the living environment in northeast and north China; indiscriminate groundwater use and seawater intrusion threatens coastal cities; unforeseen impacts of massive construction projects also attract the attention of the State.

“Regulations for the Implementation of Soil Conservation Law of the People's Republic of China” are advanced in 2000. At the same time, the State Council makes the Grain-for-Green project a central part of western China's large-scale development plan. In 2001, the State Council promulgates “Several opinions for the further improvement of the Grain for Green policy” including provisions "to grow ecological forest.”

More details ... each period is fully described in the following articles

Population boom (1949 to 1979)
Growth of industry (1998 to 2000)
Factory of the world (2001 to date)

Population boom (1949 to 1979)

2012-09-07T06:59:01+00:00

Authors:	Pingcang Zhang, Honghu Liu, Jiang Min
Coordinating authors:	Constantinos Kosmas, Giovanni Quaranta
Editors:	Alexandros Kandelapas, Jane Brandt

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 20Mar14: Source D131-17.2.1{/xtypo_alert}

Assessment of natural, economic and social capitals

Natural capital
Assessment	Official soil data for the period before 1979 is scarce. However, the period includes extensive land reclamation and deforestation that cause serious soil loss. Water is of high capital value, average runoff depth is 758 mm and the average surface water is 1837 million m³. Ground water quantity is 857 million m³. Most water is bicarbonate water with the dissolved solids less than 0.5g/L and pH about 7~8. In the late 1970s, 12.26% of Zigui county is cropland, while more than 50% is forest and 12,4% garden land. Increased population results in the demand of food and local farmers are encouraged to convert forest to cropland. 60-70% of cropland is paddy. After the paddy is harvested, wheat and peanuts are planted. Other crop types included potato, sweet potato and maize. {tip Reclaimed land from forest land to cropland}{/tip} The average temperature ranges between 6 to 18°C. The average temperature in Guizhou town is 18 °C. The average temperature in the warmest month is 28.9 °C and in the coldest is 6.4 °C. The rainfall ranges from 950 to 1590 mm, with an average of 1439.2 mm.
Critical functions	Accounts from local farmers report permanent water flow in streams, indicating that soil infiltration capacity and soil water storage capacity is adequate. However there is some indication of land and vegetation deterioration in the area. Between 1959 and 1985, there are 63 drought disasters. In the early part of the period, crop production depends on rainfall. Later, chemical fertilizer, upgrade of low-and medium-yield farmland and technological improvements increase grain yield per ha.
Critical variables	-

Economic capital
Assessment	In 1978 the proportion of three sectors of the economy (agriculture: industry: services) is 67.91:8.59:23.5. GDP added value for each in 1978 is 5726×10⁴ RMB, 724×10⁴ RMB, 1981×10⁴RMB respectively. The main exported goods include orange, cow leather, goat leather, yellow weasel leather, mixed leather, bristles, sheep and pig casing, Osmunda japonica and silkworm silk and cocoons. Before 1990, the export goods are agricultural products. In fact, agriculture is the main economic sector and source of employment in Zigui county. Agricultural subsidy policies start at the end of the 1950s, gradually expanding to cover subsidies for production materials, electricity and loan interest. Although, at the time unemployment in Zigui county is close to zero, disposable income is very low. Bank deposits increase significantly during the period but, overall, are low. All farmers cultivate together for 280-300 days with a daily salary per farmer of 0.2-0.4 Yuan RMB (annual salary from 56 to 72 Yuan RMB). Grain provision per farmer is 400-450 kg. In 1979 landesque capital comprises 3080 ponds, irrigating 1733 ha of cropland, as well as 12 small irrigation tanks with 2702.66 m³ irrigation capacity covering a further 4413.3 ha. In 1965, irrigation water volume in the whole county is 9.78 million cubic meters. In 1955 citrus orchards replace cereals in terraced land. After 1959, the high construction rate of terraces results in the deterioration of their quality, In terms of physical capital, in 1949, arable land in Zigui County is 36.3 thousand ha (0.15 ha/capita). In 1953 the total area increases, but per capita area remains constant. During 1953-1980, total area and area per capita decreases. In 1980, the total arable land is 29.9 thousand ha and the area per capita is 0.08 ha. Before 1954 there are no pigs in the area, whereas after 1954 their population starts increasing, reaching about 640 thousands in 2005. However, during 1960 – 1963 a natural disaster causes the reduction of their population. Sheep population also increases from 1949 to 1985. In 1953, 400 kg of the chemical fertilizer ammonium sulfate is used for the first time. In 1978, the total amount of chemical fertilizer is 12699 t (N 8551 t, P 4148 t). Since 1953 the county has used more than 60 kinds of chemicals and biological pesticides. After 1970s a lot of efficient, low toxicity and residue pesticides gradually replace older toxic pesticides. Agricultural mechanisation is introduced in 1959. After 1976 the government subsidizes the market for agricultural power machinery, giving the opportunity to every village to possess equipment. In 1980 there are 2145 agricultural machines.
Critical functions	Local farmers from all villages are divided into several production teams, working and living under similar conditions.
Critical variables	-

Social capital
Assessment	During the period 1953-1957 natural growth rate is 25.36%. This is the first birth boom period after the new China government. In 1959-1961, natural growth rate falls to -11.77% because of serious natural disasters. After 1962, the natural growth begins to increase again. A second population boom period comes between 1966 and 1970, with an annual population growth of 7861 and a rate of 26.93%. Family planning is implemented after 1970, after which the growth rate starts decreasing from 15.57% in 1971 to 9.66% in 1976 and 6.51% in 1980. During 1949-1979, farmers are organized in groups of 80–100 people, collectively involved in infrastructure works (building roads, canals etc.), or in agricultural works (e.g. tillage). In 1966 the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution begins, lasting until 1976. During the period, party cadres and intellectuals are affected, but production activity persists.
Critical functions	Organization in small groups and collectivisation of production are the prevailing social characteristics.
Critical variables	-

Main LEDD problems and responses

The origins of LEDD problems during the period may be traced to high birth rates and rapid population growth, creating pressures to increase food production.

The main response to these issues is to implement large scale land reclamation in order to ensure crop production and food supply. This causes a lot of vegetation destruction and severe soil loss particularly during 1958-1960 (the Great Leap Forward). These responses contribute to the 1961 severe drought. After the Cultural Revolution, a large number of citrus groves are planted along the Yangtze River and the citrus industry grows rapidly. More positive responses are implemented at the county and micro-level. In 1961 the County Government issues a strategy of “taking grain as the key link to develop” although little of it is implemented before 1976.

The awareness for forest protection is an important guarantee for Zigui Forestry Development. Some non-governmental cooperatives actively afforest, planting economic forests to improve forestry output. However, due to the use of single species forests, understory cover is reduced, limiting seedling survival rate and preventing efficient soil conservation.

Local government organizes farmers to build terraces and the construct small-scale irrigation and water conservancy projects by self-financing, without state assistance. Some farmers spontaneously dig small rainwater water cellars in the fields around their lands.

Policy context
{xtypo_alert}AK: to check that implementation, impacts and effectiveness of selected policies are discussed in this text. Look at D142 to see if there is any additional information. {/xtypo_alert}

After 1949, land reform (Tu Gai) wi launched in a bid to reduce social inequality by confiscating land from the rich (landlords) and then redistributing it to the poor. By 1958, all land is either state- or collectively owned. Urban land is state-owned whereas farmland is collectively owned, with a few exceptions. This type of land ownership structure persists for the coming decades.

Some collectively owned land in rural areas is converted to state-owned land through land acquisition. Instead of paying market prices, the state provided a compensation package that includes urban residency licenses (Hukou), employment, housing compensation and compensation for the loss of crops. Although peasants are not paid market prices, they are willing to give their land to the state. The Hukou license also makes former farmers eligible for medical insurance, pension and retirement plans and better school access.

The Hukou system helps to tightly control rural–urban migration, to limit labour mobility and to prevent some urban growth problems. On the other hand, it creates a dichotomous urban–rural structure where urban residents have a much higher standard of living and satisfaction.

Properties of the system
{xtypo_alert}AK: to check if there is any further relevant information in D133{/xtypo_alert}

Natural capital: The potential for change of cereal and citrus cultivation, estimated on the basis of average air temperature and rain seasonality, is moderate overall. Robustness, in terms of resistance to drought is low. From 1959-1985, there are 63 drought disasters, of which 29 are partial, 21 moderate and 13 severe. Droughts with a duration of 6-9 months have the most severe effect on agricultural production. Redundancy however is relatively high. Paddy coveres about 70% and wheat and potato about 30% of Zongui county, ensuring continuing function in cases of disruption.

Most cropland is planted for grain and much less for economic trees. Plantation characteristics suggest that species are moderately connected, and that the area is characterized by a high connectedness index.

Economic captial: Robustness is low and redundancy high. The Zingui economy is characterized by a strong degree of subsistence. Farming is the dominant occupation, almost all grain is allocated locally while some is handed over to the government. Fertilizer inputs are organic, not chemical.

Social capital: Population increases dramatically. All workers follow collective productive activities, organised in production teams. Trust and cooperation are present.

Socio-ecological resilience
{xtypo_alert}AK: to be added, source: D133{/xtypo_alert}

Socio-ecological fit of the dominant response to LEDD
{xtypo_alert}AK: to be added, source: D133{/xtypo_alert}

Growth of industry (1998 to 2000)

2013-08-05T10:42:07+00:00

Authors:	Pingcang Zhang, Honghu Liu, Jiang Min
Coordinating authors:	Constantinos Kosmas, Giovanni Quaranta
Editors:	Alexandros Kandelapas, Jane Brandt

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 20Mar14: Source D131-17.2.2{/xtypo_alert}

Assessment of natural, economic and social capitals

Natural capital
Assessment	Based on the the second soil survey data in China, soil depth in Zigui is moderately deep, ranging from 30 cm to 45 cm. Slope gradients are more than 15%. These two factors mean that soil capital is moderate, with less than 18% low. The Yangtze River and eight tributaries flow through Zigui County. Urban and industrial expansion along the rivers leads to a deterioration in water quality of two rivers. Vegetation capital in Zigui County is high.
Critical functions	In this period, several water conservation projects are implemented, particularly relating to ground water. Although 16 drought disasters occur between 1979 and 2005, their effects are limited. Crop productivity has not been measured directly. During the period, area under grain cultivation is reduced, but the yield per ha and total grain yield rise sharply, owing to chemical fertilizer use and the enthusiasm of local farmers to labour. The yield per hectare of the oil crops (rapeseed, sesame, peanut) shows great variations owing primarily to climate conditions. Erosion protection index is about 1.3 (78 %. of the area). The drought resistance index is between 1.0 and 1.2 for more than 70% of the study site, while plant cover index shows greater variability.
Critical variables	-

Economic capital
Assessment	This period is defined by the growth of industry, from 46.18 million RMB in 1985 to 124 million RMB in 1990. In 2000, the proportion of three sectors of the economy (agriculture: industry: services) is 26.66: 17.81: 55.53. The main export goods include orange, cow leather, goat leather, yellow weasel leather, mixed leather, bristles, sheep and pig casing, Osmunda japonicaand silkworm silk and cocoon. After 1990, the types and number of the export goods decreases, although silicon acquires a prominent role. Agriculture remains the main productive sector in Zigui County. In terms of financial capital, during 1980-1992, subsidies for farms are low and after 1992 grain price also decrease. Economically speaking, the protection for farms is meaningless. In 1985, the bank deposits of local people have more than 7.27 million RMB, seven times more than 1979. In 1985 landesque capital comprises a terraced area covering 19.6 thousand ha. During 1994-1998, 3520 hectares of new terraces are built. During 1980-2000, the population increases while arable land area decreases, hence the arable land area per capita decreases. In 1985, the area covered by citrus is 3133.3 ha. From 1983 to 1995, the area covered by tea increases from 1152.27 ha to 2338 ha. The number of pigs increases while sheep decrease from 68.7 thousand in 1981 to 27.2 thousand in 1985. Fertilizer use reaches a peak in 1990. Until 1995 use fell, increasing again to reach 19698 t, in 2000. In 1980, some insecticides including DDT are eliminated. In 1985, the comprehensive prevention and control measures are adopted in the whole county. In 1985, 432 tractors are in use. Telephone use expands greatley after the 1980s while, the first narrowband dial up internet service opens at the post office in 1998.
Critical functions	-
Critical variables	-

Social capital
Assessment	Population peaks in 1990 and decreases thereafter as family planning policy began to show results. The farm production responsibility system is implemented in Zigui County in 1982. This fully mobilizes the enthusiasm of local farmers to plant. As mechanisation is relatively, tillage mostly depends on the manual labour. Sometimes, in the busy farming season, the workers of different families help each other. Trust and cooperation between them is strong and the local exchange of goods is very frequent throughout the 1990s. This period is marked by the shift from agriculture to industry, services and trade. In addition, some adults leave home to work abroad, mainly performing physical labour. In general migration is higher during the early stage of the period with some returns noted towards the end.
Critical functions	Population increases in the beginning of the period and then decreases. Out-migration is strong and the number of people leaving to find employment rises to 15% in the year 2000. Efforts at education take place, addressed to all ages (children, adults, old people) Although trust and cooperation generally persist, water conflicts over paddy irrigation begin to emerge.
Critical variables	-

Main LEDD problems and responses

Soil erosion is very severe in Zigui County. In 1982, an area of 2148.7 km² (88% of total area of the county) was subject to erosion. Severely eroded areas (erosion modulus 8.000-15.000) account for more than 37% of the county. In 2000, the area under erosion falls to 1335.92 km² (55% of Zigui county). Soil loss is estimated at 4.208 million tons under erosion modulus of 3150 t/ km² per year.

Natural characteristics of the area and its climate (high mountains, steep slopes, broken terrain, uneven temporal distribution of rainfall) contribute to high erosion risk, as do inappropriate land management practices (lack of water conservation, deforestation particularly in steep slopes, down slope cultivation, mining, road and factory construction). In 1950, the forested area in Zigui County covered 40% of the area, whereas in the 60s, 70s and 80s forested area cover 34.8%, 25.9% and 21% respectively.

Floods in the area can be devastating: in 1982 alone, there are512 large rock fall landslides (240 million m³), covering 152 villages and 28 large landslides (100 million m³).

Drought can be equally severe: in 1990 there are 87 days of drought during summer and autumn (total rainfall 16.9 mm). During this period 16 towns and 466 villages were affected by drought. The economic disaster from the lost production of grain, orange and other agricultural products is estimated tobe over 58.84 million Yuan.

Soil acidification is also present, particularly in Yichang and Wushan. The pH of the soil increases with soil depth, with the rate of change being greater in the first 0-40cm . However, there is a certain buffering capacity in the area of soil to acid. Meanwhile, the acidification of soil water is also obvious in Yichang and Wushan. Soil acidification caused by the increase of total aluminum in soil water leads to aluminum toxicity in plants and is one of the important causes of forest decline. Soil acidification is aggravated by acid rain in the mountains of Wushan County, Chongqing (altitude 1780m) which drains into the Yangtze river.

Mining wasteland refers to land which cannot be used in the mining process. It includes: waste rock piles of stripped topsoil, low-grade ore and mined rock fragments; waste land after elected concentrate; abandoned land after mining operations, mechanical facilities, mine auxiliary buildings and road traffic. Wastelands entail the occupation and destruction of large amount of arable land resources as well as other serious environmental impacts. Wind and water erosion pollute the environment and affect the growth of crops and human health. Large amounts of sediment go into the river or reservoir in rainstorms, water is polluted, water conservancy facilities are affected, flood hazards is also exacerbated. The impact of surface and groundwater often leads to the decline in soil quality, ecosystem degradation and loss of biodiversity. Mine wastes, particularly tailings ponds often contain a variety of pollutants (heavy metals, cyanide residues) which, when mismanaged, threaten livelihoods, property and health downstream.

Land degradation is very serious in Yangtze River Basin. Soil erosion is the most important reason for land degradation and desertification. In the red soil region, “red desertification” is caused by water erosion. In the southwestern rocky mountain region, “stone desertification” is also caused by water erosion. These two are the most serious land degradation phenomena in the Yangtze River Basin. Local farmers nevertheless continue to plough for crop production, intensifying soil loss and land degradation.

Responses to LEDD problems centre around the Central Government's focuses on local policy planning the area of Gezhouba Dam and Three Gorges reservoir through the creation of an ecological barrier. From 1983, the Gezhouba Dam and Three Gorges projects create the opportunity for large-scale soil and water conservation. Several soil and water conservation measures are adopted in Yangtze River Basin.

Several policies combine to encourage excessive farmland conversion, even in areas where the central government has made farmland preservation a top priority. Policies influencing government finance, residential construction, and urban land transactions combine to create a high demand for land. Policies governing payment for land make farmland conversion the most attractive means of meeting the demand. The current policy environment therefore generates incentives for local governments to convert farmland to urban uses.

The allocation of urban land takes place through a combination of administrative, quasi-market, and market mechanisms creating substantial arbitrage opportunities for private enterprises and for government entities. State and non-profit entities receive a land allocation without specific time limits. Municipal governments may also lease land to private enterprises (40 years for commercial enterprises, 50 years for industrial enterprises, and 70 years for residential uses).

The secondary markets create incentives for excessive conversion of rural land, which can be purchased by local governments for re-conveyance in return for yet another administratively set compensation package that is typically considerably less than the conveyance fee. Conveyance fees, formerly divided between various government levels, now go entirely to local governments. Revenue from land transactions is therefore major source of funding for local governments. As a result, local governments have strong incentives to expand into rural areas in order to finance their obligations and/or expansion.
Current housing regulations also make it more attractive for local governments to provide housing for growing populations by expanding into rural areas rather than increasing density within existing urban boundaries. Redevelopment of existing municipal land requires governments to pay compensation to current tenants and to cover resettlement expenses.

Other economic growth policies contribute to degradation: in the context of policy emphasis on industrial development, local governments acquire and set aside land for industrial development in the hope of attracting industrial investment. Much of that land has remained idle.

Land allocation is under the authority of the village committee or economic organization, under oversight by township, provincial, and, in some cases, state organs. Farmland is leased to households under contractual arrangements in which the household pays a fee (typically including a grain quota) to the collective in return for a residual claim on the products of the land. The contract may contain other stipulations (e.g. requirements that the land be farmed and maintained in good condition). However, committees retain the right to reallocate land and in many villages, reallocations have occurred frequently enough to deter investment in land productivity. Studies have found that farmers facing a greater risk of land reallocation invest less in organic fertilizer and that farmers in villages with a policy of no land readjustments for population changes were more likely to invest, and invested more, in agricultural improvements. Farmers with land-transfer rights were similarly more likely to invest in agricultural improvements.

Such concerns lead the Chinese government to experiment with lengthening the duration of farmland contracts between households and the collective from 15 years in 1984 to 30 years in 1998 and more recently to experiment with even lengthier contracts (60 years). In addition, rules on subcontracting have also been relaxed since the mid-1980s.

Nevertheless, tenure security remains a thorny issue as it limits the power of the collective and may force the state to rely more on market mechanisms to ensure adequate grain supplies. Enhanced tenure security may also result in less equitable land allocations. Local authorities show widespread non-compliance on tenure rights issues. Village leaders have been known to expropriate land from farmers to lease to rural enterprises or to sell to local governments, often without paying compensation and in many cases pocketing the returns themselves. Illegal land development of this kind has become a national scandal.

Industrial and urban growth policies also fuel migration: 80% of young males in in Pinghu worked in industries in nearby cities; in Jingzhou, with a lower level of industrial development, the figure is 20%. Lack of urban residency rights keeps these families tied to the land but since their main source of income is non-agricultural, they have little incentive to invest in maintaining and enhancing land productivity. Moreover, limitations on labour time and capacity may induce them to leave some land uncultivated.

Prohibiting conversion of land designated as basic farmland also constrains site selection for economic development projects. These constraints increase the price of land and thus raise the cost of doing business. They also create an ad hoc land development process, which results in a chaotic and uncoordinated land development patterns, less efficient utilization of existing infrastructure, and higher costs for local government provision of urban services. These problems are exacerbated by the differential treatment of basic and non-basic farmland. Farmers whose land is designated basic farmland are penalized by a denial of access to urban land markets, even if their farms may enjoy a location advantage. Farmers from areas not designated as basic farmland are not similarly constrained. This inequitable treatment makes it difficult for local governments to implement effective land management tools and creates social tensions that make the land acquisition process more difficult, lead to chaotic and uncoordinated development, and encourage the development of hidden or informal land markets.

Inadequate implementation of irrigation and drainage management may also function as a LEDD driver through lack of clearly delineated and enforced use-rights for water, inadequate financing of water delivery infrastructure, and failure to price water at its opportunity cost.

Properties of the system
{xtypo_alert}AK: to check if there is any further relevant information in D133{/xtypo_alert}

Natural capital: Rain seasonality shows little variability and good suitability for plant growth. Average overall temperature and overall potential for change remain stable.

Since the mid-1990s the implementation of soil and water conservation measures begin to show results, redundancy and robustness to drought increase significantly. The Diversity index remains relatively stable.

Openness is increased to moderate as intensive agriculture and production for the market dominate. Use of (imported) chemical fertilizer rises by more than 80% between 1978 and 1985.

Economic captial: In this period, the Zigui County government actively develops the local economy and infrastructure. Local GDP and disposable income of local farmers increase.

Social capital: Population numbers increase then decrease. Growth rate becomes negative after 1996, demonstrating the effectiveness of family planning policy. Human capital is high compared to activities prevalent in the period. Important reforms in the governance of China government are introduced, particularly with regard to economic development.

Socio-ecological resilience
{xtypo_alert}AK: to be added, source: D133{/xtypo_alert}

Socio-ecological fit of the dominant response to LEDD
{xtypo_alert}AK: to be added, source: D133{/xtypo_alert}

Factory of the world (2001 to date)

2014-01-30T15:03:48+00:00

Authors:	Pingcang Zhang, Honghu Liu, Jiang Min
Coordinating authors:	Constantinos Kosmas, Giovanni Quaranta
Editors:	Alexandros Kandelapas, Jane Brandt

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 20Mar14: Source D131-17.2.3{/xtypo_alert}

Assessment of natural, economic and social capitals

Natural capital
Assessment	Soil capital in Zigui County in 2007 is mainly moderate. Overall, water capital in Zigui county demand is 0.732 ×10⁸ m³ and water consumption is 0.4899 ×10⁸ m³. The WC/WD ratio is 0.67. Water quality is moderate to low. Vegetation capital increases. Area under forest cover increases from 24.6% in 1985 to 61% in 2009.
Critical functions	Although, yield per hectare of oil and grain crops increases, due to the reduction of plant area total grain yield decreases. Drought isnot a problem during the period, after the completion of several water conservation projects
Critical variables	-

Economic capital
Assessment	The contribution of agriculture and services to the economy (GDP) decreases while that of industry rises sharply. Canned food and silicon remain the main export goods. Nevertheless, agriculture remains the main source of employment (67%) followed by services (20%) and then industry (13%). In the financial capital, small subsidies and compensations exist for grain (0.28 RMB/kg), wheat disease (75 RMB/ha), rape disease (150 RMB/ha) as well as subsidies for agricultural machinery. The ratio of present population + immigration/resident population decreases from 0.95 to 0.77. Bank deposits increase from 177.4 million RMB in 2005 to 448.14 million RMB in 2009. Disposable income per capita also increases from 5820 RMB in 2000 to 10515 RMB in 2009. Considering landesque capital, in 2005 there are 20 water reservoirs with a total capacity of 38.251 million m³ and effective capacity 27.017 million m³. The area under irrigation is 1.739.8 ha. A further was 2466.7 ha is irrigated by 3228 ponds (11.9417 million m³) and 1026.4 ha by 45500 pools (2.5826 million m³). As far as physical capital is concerned, the “Changzhi project” contributes to the construction of 1542.3 ha of new terraces. Total arable land is 26.2 thousand ha in 2005 (0.07 ha per capita). The area of citrus is 10200 ha and the tea 2157.77 ha. Since 2000, the numbers of pigs continues to increase (from 525.7 thousand in 2000 to 640.5 thousand in 2005). In technology capital, chemical fertilizer use shows a small decrease between 2000 and 2005. Total agricultural machinery gross power in 2005 in the county s 127.4 thousand KW. Internet use has been increasing exponentially since 2003.
Critical functions	During the period, GDP and added value of sectors increases very quickly as more and more of the population became employed in industry and services. Bank deposits and disposable income rises dramatically. At the same time, many water conservation projects are built (terraces, ponds). Within a period of 15 years, communication forms change from telegram to telephone and internet. Traditional agriculture is gradually converted to the economic plantations (fruit).
Critical variables	-

Social capital
Assessment	In this period, population declines continuously with a negative from 2000 to 2005. More recent data however (2010-2012) shows a slight increase. Agriculture has lost its attractiveness as a profession, with farmers seeking employment in other sectors (salaried) or other places. Cooperation is declining. Junior high school education becomes mandatory and levels of education are increasing with more young people pursuing high level education.
Critical functions	-
Critical variables	-

Main LEDD problems and responses

Soil acidification and acid rain persist, affecting approximately 27200 km² of arable land. The county has 986.67 km² (3.6% of farmland) of acid or alkaline low-yield farmland, of which 826.67 km² (3% of farmland) is peracid (soil pH < 5.0). The Three Gorges reservoir area continues to be a natural disaster-prone area, with frequent landslides. Use of wastewater for irrigation affects farmland, forests and grasslands, particularly in the region of Yichang City. Wastewater includes municipal sewage, petrochemical sewage, industrial mining sewage and urban mixed sewage. The content of heavy metals in urban sewage is small, but due to the rapid development of China's industrial and mining enterprises, not segregating industrial from urban sewage and the use of this mixed wastewater for irrigation, there is an accummulation of heavy metals in the soil. This is exacerbated by pesticide and fertilizers applications of agricultural measures. Road construction has also become an important LEDD issue.

The dominant response to LEDD problems continues to be a combination of measures under the "Grain-for-Green" project and related watershed management efforts. Since 2000, the Zigui Government implements the "Changzhi Project" as a pilot project under Grain-for-Green in the upper and middle reaches of the Yangtze River. Between 2001 and 2004, the County Forestry Bureau increases forest coverage from 43.2% to 52.3% and oversees the afforestation of 13.85 hectares. The county also stops all commercial logging in natural forests. During this "consolidation phase", the County Land Resources Bureau implements unified management including upland and abandoned farms.

The projects receive strong support from the central government: between 2000 and 2005, over 48.000 farmers receive a total of 44.735 million Yuan to, amongst other things, plant 2100 ha of economic forest. However, after 2005, Grain-for-green incentives provided by the state are reduced as management is handed to local government. From 2008, natural forests in Maoping, Jiulingtou forest are included in the natural protection forest district.

The tourism industry grows, employing increasing numbers of traditional agricultural populations.

Overall the green area continues to rise nearing the levels of the 1960s. The comprehensive management of Zigui creates significant improvements in the living environment.

China's growth, supported by national policies for industrialisation, regional development and urbanization serve as significant drivers for LEDD problems. The impact of these policies are rapid and dramatic. In contrast, conservation policies are not as quick in achieving results. From the 1990s, several laws and regulations governing land use are advanced, including the New Land Administration Law (1998), the Basic Farmland Protection Regulation (passed in 1994, revised and enforced in 1998) and the policy to Maintain both Economic Development and Land Resources Conservation (2003).

However the conversion of cultivated land to industry and urbanisation largely increases in the 1998–2003 period, leading to a decrease in agricultural land. From 2000, the area of high quality cultivated land in the eastern and particularly southeastern China greatly decreases due to urbanisation and agricultural adjustment. During 2001–2005, the total area of cultivated land decreases by 6.16 million hectares, a much higher amount than during 1996–2000.

As a response the government enacts the "Urgent Notice on the Improvement and Rectification of Land Market and the Enhancement of Land Management". The policy strictly controls the total area of developed land and suspends approval of requests for land conversion. In addition, the "Evaluating Method on the Equilibrium of Requisition-Compensation of Cultivated Land (2006)" require that any loss of cultivated land be compensated by the generation of a similar area of cultivated land from other land-use types. Although cultivated land continues to decrease, as it has since 2003, the rate of conversion of cultivated land to other land-use types gradually decreases. However, there is significant geographic variation in cultivated land and high quality cultivated land that is lost is often replaced by new but low quality land.

Land policy continues to expand to include "Strict Cultivated Land Protection and Developed Land Control" and support of the administratiion to control illegal use of land resources. In 2008, in order to overcome global economic crisis, China’s land policy is adjusted to so-called "double maintenance strategy", i.e. to maintain both economic development and land resources conservation or "Maintain both Development Rate and Red Line". The red line refers to the minimum area of cultivated land that China must maintain.

The effectiveness of these policies is seen in grain production. Grain production was 0.512 billion tons in 1998, decreased to 0.431 billion tons in 2003 but increases again to 0.529 billion tons in 2008.

Over these years it is increasingly recognised that government allocation of land resources (policies of Cultivated Land Protection and Control of Developed Land) may be insufficient to solve land-use conflicts and the that reforming user rights may be a better way to manage land and improve efficiency. The establishment of the Chinese agricultural land transfer system takes place through:

the “Rural Land Contracting Law” (2003), under which land contract management rights can be transferred through subcontract, rent, exchange, assignment or other means;
“Regulations on Transfer of Rural Land Management” (2005) establishing a framework for local governments to deal with agricultural land transfer systems pursuant to their respective situations;
the "Decision as to Several Significant Problems in Promoting Rural Reform and Development” (2008) of the CPC Central Committee, advocating stronger supervision of land contract management rights and the establishment of the market of land management rights. The document puts forward three principles of land contract management rights

The collective ownership of agricultural land cannot be changed

The use of agricultural land cannot be changed

Contracting farmers' rights cannot be harmed.

Properties of the system
{xtypo_alert}AK: to check if there is any further relevant information in D133{/xtypo_alert}

Natural capital: Rain seasonality shows little variability and good suitability for plant growth. Average overall temperature and overall potential for change remain stable. Orange groves are moderately connected while tea garden and perennial crops are loosely connected. Openness remains moderate as imports of fertiliser continue but grain exports decrease. Redundancy and robustness to drought remain high, while the diversity index slightly decreased. Orange groves are characterized by low rapidity in recovering whereas traditional cropping system by high rapidity.

Economic captial: The period is characterised by security in the food supply and the expansion of horticultural trees. All lower lever properties show an overall improvement

Social capital: Population decreases at first then gradually increases. Institutional changes in the central government play an important role in economic construction. Local trust and cooperation are reduced and largely replaced by formal employment relations.

Socio-ecological resilience
{xtypo_alert}AK: to be added, source: D133{/xtypo_alert}

Socio-ecological fit of the dominant response to LEDD
{xtypo_alert}AK: to be added, source: D133{/xtypo_alert}

Optimal response assemblages, policy recommendations for Zhang Jiachong SES**

2012-09-07T07:00:50+00:00

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{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 6Sept12: Source D133.{/xtypo_alert}

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