{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 8Mar13. Source D331-2.3. {/xtypo_alert}

Location The Matera prefecture study site covers an area of 343,362 ha, distributed among 31 municipalities. The town of Matera is the largest municipality (38,000 ha), followed by four municipalities that extending to over 20,000 ha. The most densely populated areas are located along the Ionian coast.

Climate

From 2005 to 2010, the mean value of precipitation was 669.13mm. Annual mean temperature is generally between 14 and 15 °C. The rainiest months are March, September and December, while May and August are the driest. The temperature peak is registered in July with mean value around 25 °C. Mean annual ET0 values vary from 1131.25 mm in the South-West to 1478.77 mm in the North-West.

Topography, geology, soils and hydrology

The province has well defined orographic features and hydrographic network structure. It may be divided into altimetric zones, with different morphology and vegetation. The Apennine side includes mountain ridges, the hilly area and large plains. The most common geolithogical formations are clay formations (34%) and alluvial deposits (29%).

The Ionian coast is characterised by a wide plain and a flat coastal strip, exhibiting a sequence of sand dune ridges, followed by a wide alluvial plain and marine terraces as one moves further inland.

Dominant aspect classes are 10-25% (33% of the area) and 0-5% (31%). Slopes are characterized by smooth hills, with weak to moderate slopes, subjected to laminar erosion and mudflows. Landslides are a widespread phenomenon, affecting more than 7,500 ha.

Types of soil in the area are "Soils of the clay hills" (38%), "Soils of the central rough mountains" (17%), "Soils of the alluvial plains" (16%), and "Soils of the Ionian coastal plain" (13%). Soil textures are moderately fine (35%), fine (34%), medium (15%) and coarse (15%). In 69% of Matera, soil reaction is moderately alkaline. Soil carbonate content is mostly very calcareous (47%), non calcareous (26%) and moderately calcareous (21.3%). Almost 70,000 ha, mainly in the intensively cultivated Ionian coast are affected by nitrate pollution risk as a consequence of intensive agriculture and low purifying capacity of soils. Generally Matera is under moderate erosion risk, with low levels at the forest cover and higher levels of risk corresponding to the "calanchi" areas.

Matera is crossed by all the major rivers of Basilicata.

Ecosystems and land use

Ecosystems in the area in include cultivated areas and forests. Vegetation is dominated by the Lauretum (i.e. formations with predominance of Laurum nobilis) and in some areas in the west by the Castanetum (chestnut formations) and the Fagetum (beech formations).

The study area includes several natural reserves including 13 Sites of Community interest and the Pollino National Park. The dominant land cover classes are arable land (47%), forests (16%), heterogeneous agricultural areas (16%), permanent crops (7%), shrub (6%) and pastures (2%). A significant part of Matera (68,444 ha) is covered by the calanchi badlands a typical Matera landscape, with different degrees of erosion starting from simple laminar erosion to the "biancane", small rounded residual hills. Calanchia areas are the result of typical erosion form distributed in the Italian Apennines.

Land use is mainly cropland (55%), forests (10%), wood plantations (13%) and pastures (16%) Land use structure has changed significantly in the last twenty years, having undergone an urbanization process: artificial areas more than doubled since 1990. Agricultural land is generally privately owned.

Population, employment and income

Population is concentrated in the municipality of Matera with a resident population over the 20,000 inhabitants. All other municipalities have between 1,000 and 10,000 inhabitants, with three communitied having less than 1,000. Population density is generally between 21 and 50 inhabitants per km², except in four municipalities where it exceeds 100. Population was growing until 1991, and has declined by almost 3% since. The elderly people account for an increasing share of the population. The total dependency ratio is around the threshold value of 50%. Matera's birth rate remains higher than the regional average and, until 2003, was higher than the national average. Net migration flow is negative: internal migration counteracts incoming immigrants coming from third countries.

Economically, only the tertiary sector is growing, while industry and agriculture show fluctuating trends. Trade balance in Matera Prefecture is positive. Annual new investments, since 1995 fluctuate around 2,000,000€, concentrated in services and industry. Location quotients indicate self-sufficiency for industrial and agricultural production but not for services.

The dominant source of employment is trade and services (57%, up from 28% in 1971), followed by industry (29%). Agricultural employment decreased from 37% in 1971, to 14%. Unemployment is steadily over 9% (almost 14% in 2004) and over the Italian national average. 99% of the population is literate and HDI is 91.16.

Administration and infrastructure

Administratively, Matera is one of the two prefectures of the region of Basilicata.

Matera Prefecture is crossed by an extensive road network (1720 km) and the railroad (128 km). The area hosts 3 hospitals (down from 5 in 2001), 87 nursery schools, 60 primary schools, 32 lower and 36 upper secondary schools, as well as 4 museums (visitors exceeding 60,000 annually).

Policies in effect

With regard to forests/ shrubland, there is no specific national policy or legislation to combat drought and desertification. However, the general legislative framework does include the protection and valorisation of environmental resources.

Prevention and mitigation of forest fires has a concise legal framework as does the sustainable development and management of the forest sector. However, regional forest laws, contain few references to the risk of desertification, despite its occurrence and impacts in the center-south regions. Nevertheless, general risk prevention through rational management of forest resources, such as hydro-geological risks or forest fires, is prevalent. The agricultural sector is also heavily regulated, more recently by Legislative Decree 101/2005, aiming at the sector's modernization.

At regional and study site level, the forestry and agricultural sectors are primarily addressed by the Rural Development Programme of Basilicata (2007-2013) and Regional Law 42/1998 defining rural development measures. Grazing, forest management , forest fire prevention and wildlife conservation are regulated by decrees of the Regional Council. Basilicata also has a Regional Energy and Environment Plan (Piear), covering among others, renewable energy sources from agriculture and forestry.

Particular LEDD issues in Matera

• Forest productivity decline, as a response to the loss in the ability of soils to retain nutrients and to a decline in soil water storage capability by the ecosystem. It is caused by various human induced factors including forest fragmentation, poor harvesting and management practices and overgrazing. Forest fires and wild fires are also common and have significant effects with regard to soil erosion, forest fragmentation and biodiversity loss, generally inducing land degradation processes. From 1990 to 2004, 1584 fires broke out affecting a total surface of 581,49ha (42% forest, 58% non-forest), primarily in the municipalities of Tursi, Miglionico, Stigliano and Pomarico.The increase in the frequency of extreme climatic events is the principal abiotic factor for long-term processes of forest and shrubland productivity decline.
• Biodiversity loss, driven by forest fires, overgrazing, habitat change, pollution, invasive alien species, tourism and climate change.
• Ecosystem fragmentation as the result of direct loss of forest area by wildfires, but also of "edge effects" of anthropogenic land uses (urban, touristic or agriculture). In general these processes produce relictual ecosystems with the transformation of a healthy forest into a monoculture for timber, leaving only isolated historical remnants of native vegetation.
• Soil erosion, caused by the clearance of maquis for agricultural expansion, changes in plant cover due to intensive cultivation, over-grazing, controlled burning or wildfires, levelling of the land surface, plowing in directions perpendicular to the contour lines, poor maintenance of terracing land, cultivation of steep slopes and others. Repeated forest fires have been particularly destructive, leading to an involution in the forest succession stages, a lowering of the amount of biomass and increasing the risk of erosion, deterioration of chemical and physical characteristics and landslides. Alterations of soil characteristics involve changes in porosity (reduction in soil ventilation and infiltration capacity), reduction in organic matter content, and the development of a waterproof layer to a depth of 10-15 cm. Post fire grazing leads to a further reduction in tree cover. In the Calanchi area, microtopography (slope, aspect) is a key factor affecting soil erosion rate.
• Water stress and phytosanitary deterioration, brought about by extreme climatic events, affect primarily for coastal pinewood forest and coniferous reforestation in Calanchi area.
• Land degradation and desertification as the result of the combined pressures posed by the increasing frequency of extreme climatic events, ecosystem overexploitation and in some cases land abandonment. Land overexploitation is generally driven by unsustainable agricultural and grazing practices. Land abandonment is generally driven by socio-economic factors (property fragmentation, low agricultural incomes etc). In this context, extreme weather accelerates physical and biological processes at the base of main LEDD issues.

Responses made to LEDD in Matera

• The main response to forest productivity decline is the sustainable forest management, through Forest Management Plans, analysing soil and vegetation characteristics to better define the sustainability of their use.
• Regional measures for biodiversity monitoring and protection are also in place.
• Ecosystem fragmentation is addressed at the regional level, through the Triennial Forestation Plan and the Triennial Fire Protection Plan (measures include the maintenance of firebreaks, maintenance of forest roads, stand cleanings and thinnings, renaturalization practices for reforested areas and the creation of ecological corridors).
• With regard to soil erosion, the Basilicata Region administration has put in place the "Regional programme for combating drought and desertification", which foresees the sustainable management and improvement of regional forest areas, slope protection with naturalistic engineering, support for sustainable agriculture and water resource management
• Water stress and phytosanitary deterioration are also addressed through forest management plans and primarily through the Triennial Plan of Forestation of the Basilicata Region. Specific measures include: the reconstitution of degraded forests; reforestation and re-naturalization and direct actions against processionary and scolytus outbreaks (phytosanitary thinning and burning of processionary nest)
• In the context of the UN Convention to Combat Desertification, the Basilicata Region (Dept. of Environment, Land and Sustainability Policy) has put in place a Regional Programme to combat drought and desertification and participates in several projects for monitoring, awareness raising, consultation and coordination of local authorities and institutions.

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 5Aug13: Source D332-2.1{/xtypo_alert}

The situation of the forest sector of Matera is the result of the historical evolution of the environmental, social and economical structure in Italy, the Region and the area that starts at the end of 19th century.

During the 19th and early 20th centuries, Basilicata looses over 100,000 ha of forests through demand of land for agriculture and pasture. Within Basilicata, the land of Matera Prefecture is more susceptible to deforestation, due to its favourable geomorphology for cultivation, particularly cereal monoculture. The links between deforestation, soil erosion and land reclamation have been apparent since the mid-19th century although acting upon them has not always been possible, politically or financially. In the early 1900s, catastrophic landslides lead to growing awareness of erosion problems by politicians and economists and programs for infrastructure for land protection and consolidation of villages, interventions to recover the main waterways and reforestation programs. This effort however, is hampered by the first wave of emigration: between 1881 and 1921 the population of Basilicata decreases by 15%, also aided by the First World War.

After the end of the war, population growth continues to exert pressure on already degraded natural resources: deforestation proceeds, despite new legal hydro-geological constraints. Fascism's 'Battle of Wheat' leads to a conversion of 40,000 ha to cereal monoculture, mainly in Basilicata. The "Land Reclamation Act " (1933) tries to control soil erosion but also contributes to the gradual improvement of drainage and subsequent reclamation allowing the cultivation of fruits and vegetables in inland areas. During this period, the government also embarks on a vast reforestation program (mainly based on Mediterranean conifers) along the Ionian coastal land, with the purpose of consolidating the coastal dunes and protecting the inland crops by efficient windbreaks. In 1950 the Italian government enacts the Agrarian Reform Law, expropriating large latifundia and assigning land to the peasants. New rural settlements are built such as La Martella (near Matera), Policoro and Scanzano. Through the combination of the cultivation of uncultivated lands, land reclamation and irrigation, in a few years extraordinary progress is achieved in coastal Matera, until then characterized by an unproductive lands.

With this as the background context, and taking into account environmental, social, economic, responses, LEDD issues, and political characteristics, there follow two major states in the evolution of the Matera Prefecture SES of Matera.

Traditional forest management period (1961 to 1990)

Land abandonment as a result of emigration dominates; between the end of 1950 and 1965 more than 150,000 people emigrate from Basilicata. The construction of several dams is able to solve water supply problems, both for irrigation and drinking water. Erosion processes continue however, particularly along the shoreline, aided by extraction of alluvial materials along river beds and in some cases, intense tourism development in the coast.

After 1950, the reconstruction of hydro-geological balances and afforestation programmes restart and, until 1975, more than 40,000 ha are afforested, with the main aim of preventing landslides threatening Matera's main towns.

Nevertheless, pressure for converting land to cereal production continues, aided by mechanization and several policy instruments. From 1960 onwards, human pressures expand to include larger infrastructures (dams, roads, highways) and urban sprawl. Towns, perched on top of mountains, start to expand into surrounding slopes, exacerbating hydro-geological balance problems, water demand and waste disposal issues. Human settlements also begin to spread out into the valley, threatening the hydraulic stability of the riverbeds.

Economically and socially the region grows, and small communities overcome isolation. Natural gas and oil fields are discovered in the 1960s in the Avanfossa Bradanica basin and lead to some industrialization. In addition, in 1982 the University of Basilicata is established contributing to a renewed environmental perspective particularly with regard to forestry issues.

Constitutional and administrative changes from the 1970s lead to a complete transfer of responsibility for territorial administration from national to regional levels. This process includes forest policy and also forest ownership.

Sustainable forest management period (1990 to date)

The next phase is one of the most important periods for the forest system of the Basilicata Region and the Matera study site.

The devolution process, completed in 2001 for forestry issues, deeply affects the environmental regional system and, in particular, the forest component with the implementation of forest, nature and soil protection policies. This leads to a new vision and approach to the management of forest resources and, more generally, of environmental resources. This is institutionalized in a series of regional regulations that are enacted between 1998 and 2002 governing, amongst other things, the preparation and co-financing of forest management plans and mobilizing previously unutilized resources particularly by the municipalities. Growth of the forest sector is supported by

• CAP forestry measures (afforestation, farm diversification);
• regional forest fire prevention initiatives;
• national support for forest management plans;
• national and regional actions and measures for soil protection;
• protected area/biodiversity legislation (with the institution of the Park of Murgia Materana and the Rupestrian Churches (1990) and the Regional Park of Gallipoli-Cognato (1997)). These protected areas within the Natura 2000 network, represent about 25% of regional territory and contribute also to socio-economic development through the tourism sector especially for the Matera area.

Tourism grows significantly during the last 20 years and is now a major source of employment, contributing to the reversal of depopulation of the area. The listing the Sassi di Matera as a UNESCO World Heritage site and the creation of the Literary Parks of Isabella Morra (1993) and Carlo Levi (2001) combine environmental protection and local cultural heritage. In addition farm stays, combining traditional farm activities with tourism accommodation and services, increase considerably in the Matera study site.

Over 42% of tourism infrastructure and hotels are concentrated in the Ionian coast and Matera Prefecture is experiencing a process of rapid touristic and economic development. Between 1991 and 1998 the total accommodation increases by 37%, and more than 3,000 rooms are created in Matera Prefecture, favoured by the presence magnificent sandy beaches.

From 2000, the European Agricultural Fund is a powerful financial instrument, focusing on agricultural and rural environment development including the forest sector. EAFRD measures deeply impact the Basilicata Region and the Matera study site system in multiple sectors. For forestry and biodiversity, Forest Management Plans, the Triennial Forestry Plan, the Triennial Fire Protection Plan, implementation of Natura2000 site monitoring and management plans, the Land desertification protection programmes are all financed by the EAFRD. The EAFRD implementation contributes to the development of the economic and social system through new job opportunities in strategic sectors such as agriculture, environment, tourism and knowledge.

Traditional forest management period: 1960 to 1990
Sustainable forest management period: 1990 to date

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 5Aug13: Source D332-2.2.{/xtypo_alert}

Assessment of natural, economic and social capitals

The main LEDD problems and responses

Forest productivity decline is a key LEDD problem in Mediterranean forests/shrubland firstly because it affects the capacity to produce goods and services and secondly because of its relationship to other critical functions such as regulation of hydrological processes and biodiversity support and conservation. In this area, forest productivity decline shows a typical northwest southeast gradient with worsening environmental quality, function, and structure in the southwest areas. This is due to several interconnected issues including spatial variability of the meso-climate, poor land management, aridity, over-grazing, forest fires and (at least in some areas) tourism pressure.

Loss in biodiversity and forest fragmentation are interrelated problems that originated in human interventions in the past century (land for agriculture) combiled with pressure caused by intense grazing, forest fires and, in recent years, tourism. During this period, fragmentation indices show a positive trend mainly due to natural reforestation caused by rural land abandonment in inland areas

Soil erosion and deterioration. In this period the area shows medium-high rates of soil erosion depending on site-specific characteristics and vegetation cover. As expected, forest areas show lower and decreasing levels of erosion than agricultural land.

Water stress and phytosanitary deterioration of forest cover and land desertification. Using NDVI measured at the end of the dry season (i.e. during conditions of maximum water stress) and Drought Resistance, the level of resistance to water stress worsens both in forest land and at large. The ESA and Aridity (UNEP) indices show a slight worsening due to the environmental conditions linked to climate, soil and vegetation. The increase in land vulnerability to desertification, however, is not homogeneous at the spatial level but follows a coastal-inland gradient, typical of Mediterranean semi-arid land.

All forest/shrubland problems in the Matera study site are met with a common set of possible responses including:

• forest fires (negative, unplanned)
• overgrazing (negative, unplanned)
• population dynamics coupled with land abandonment (negative in the short term/positive in the long term, unplanned)
• forest and environmental policies (no major effects in the period, planned)
• forest management as usual (no effect/negative, unplanned).

Forest fires are an effective driver in worsening of LEDD problems, affecting land cover and forest populations dynamics, often to the point of irreversibility (e.g. repeated fires in conifers in the coastal area). Although, agricultural activities such as burning shrubland for regeneration or grazing is the main source of fire, fire prevention and fighting capability is limited. Forest fires impact on SES critical functions.

Overgrazing represents another effective LEDD driver, despite the generally positive aspects of husbandry in rural areas, including prescribed grazing. Overgrazing may also linked to traditional land tenure rights where there is poor compliance. Cattle are the main forest grazers, with sheep (and sometimes goats) usually concentrated in shrublands and neighbouring forest areas. Overgrazing negatively impacts on all critical functions of the SES leading to soil erosion and land degradation.

Land abandonment is one of the responses to the economic crisis of the 1970s forcing farmers to abandon activities in marginal and drought prone areas. This is a negative response in terms of land degradation and desertification due to the absence of adequate land management levels and maintenance. Land abandonment also causes changes in farm structure (on one hand farm fragmentation vs larger farms on the other). These phenomena have negative impacts on social and economic capital (loss in land productivity, loss in capital for restoration, social cost of abandonment, loss of participation and cultural heritage). Land abandonment also negatively impacts on forest productivity and regulation of hydrological processes, mainly due to the ageing of forests.

Long term land abandonment does have positive impacts on forest ecosystems in terms of forest expansion due to natural dispersal, increase of forest understory biomass, increase in biodiversity and ecosystem stability.

Policy context
{xtypo_alert}AK: to check that implementation, impacts and effectiveness of selected policies are discussed in this text. Look at D342 to see if there is any additional information. {/xtypo_alert}

In the policy field, the period is dominated by institutional and administrative reforms started at the beginning of the 1970s. Forest policy has been slow to change, governed by:

• Royal Decree 3267/1923 on "Legislative reorganization and reform in matters of mountain forest and lands" and the relative implementing Regulations. This legislative instrument has been not implemented in Matera for more than 70 years. While FMPs are not prepared, regional regulations for forestry are to some extent applied.
• Mountain Law 991/1952 and New Mountain Law 97/1994 defining policies for mountain areas through sustainable development of the mountain environment.

Forest policy during this period can be considered as minimally effective with minimal or even negative impacts, depending on local conditions.

Nevertheless the period sees an increase in forest cover due to both natural expansion and afforestation programs as part of soil protection policy funded by the Cassa per il Mezzogiorno. The Agency also provides finance for hydrogeological soil protection interventions (landslide protection, soil stability hydraulic regulation infrastructures) and reforestation aimed at soil erosion protection and hydraulic regulation.

Nature protection (biodiversity) policies and instruments are also partially applied. The lack and/or poor implementation of environmental policies may act as a driver for social and economic decline resulting in land abandonment.

Properties of the system
{xtypo_alert}AK: to check if there is any further relevant information in D333{/xtypo_alert}

Natural capital: Potential available for change can be estimated as a function of the 'amount' of available capitals (see above).

Robustness of natural capital is the capacity of a natural or semi-natural ecosystem to maintain its functioning properties in periods of severe drought. The robustness index shows different values throughout the site during this period.

The robustness of the economic capital is evaluated in terms of the quality of management in the form of adoption of a Forest Management Plans. Data indicates a critical condition, with no Forest Management Plans active in the area and very few areas under protection.

Diversity of the natural capital, is assessed through the Naturality index (species composition at forest level). With regard to the diversity of economic capital, analyses confirms the marked urban-rural gradient, active in determining strong differences in unemployment rate between coastal and inland areas as well as a significant concentration of workers in the forestry sector. The importance of the agricultural sector is also evident.

Redundancy of the natural capital component (as measured by the Pielou index) is generally higher in upland municipalities and decreases more or less rapidly in lowlands and coastal municipalities.

Connectedness of the natural capital as evaluated through the use of a Proximity Index is relatively high in the inland zone (indicating the good environmental quality of the mountain landscape) and partly good in the site as whole, despite the strong gradient from coastal to inland areas. The level of connectedness of economic capital seems to have risen throughout the study site.

Rapidity of the natural capital component measured as recovery from disturbance varies from very low to high with an overall moderate mean. The highest values are found in areas where the prevailing forest type is Mediterranean maquis, which has a quick resprouting capacity after disturbance, whereas lower values are found in high forests or coppices.

Economic captial: --

Social capital: --

Socio-ecological resilience
{xtypo_alert}AK: to be added, source: D333{/xtypo_alert}

Socio-ecological fit of the dominant response to LEDD
{xtypo_alert}AK: to be added, source: D333{/xtypo_alert}

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 23Mar14: Source D332-2.2.2{/xtypo_alert}

Assessment of natural, economic and social capitals

Main LEDD problems and responses

Decline in forest productivity remains a key LEDD problem due to its connections with other critical functions such as regulation of hydrological processes and biodiversity conservation. There is slightly increase in levels of forest productivity and cover expansion that epresents a positive aspect of the resistance to external disturbances.

Loss in biodiversity and forest fragmentation, though rampant in the past, have now been reversed due to the land abandonment processes and the subsequent reduction of human pressure on the environment. There is a slow but increasing rate of recovery in forest cover through the natural expansion of the forests and an increase in biodiversity levels due to more sustainable use of the forest resources.

Soil erosion and deterioration emerge as a major issue of LEDD with the area showing medium-high rates of soil erosion depending on site-specific characteristics and vegetation cover. There is a decrease in estimated soil erosion level for the forested areas and improved environmental conditions of the forests. The level of resistance to water stress is stable over time both in forests and at large.

The main responses associated with problems iare the following:

• Forest fires (negative, unplanned)
• Overgrazing (negative, unplanned)
• Population dynamics coupled with land abandonment (negative in the short period/positive in the long, unplanned)
• New forest and environmental policies (positive effects in the period, planned)
• Sustainable forest management (positive, planned)

Also in this period, climate and its change continue to be a key factor for natural and semi-natural environments influencing not only biophysical aspects of the SES but constraining management options at the local scale.

These responses are similar to those of the first period, albeit with significant improvement in the effectiveness of the environmental policies. Population dynamics consolidate the urban-rural and coastal-inland density gradients observed earlier. Population increase in coastal areas and around Matera and the increase of the land abandonment of inland areas, show similar trends and consequences as before. Other disturbances include forest fires, overgrazing and negative impacts on coastal forests due to increase of tourism and second-home construction.

Forest and environmental policies and sustainable forest management emerge as a dominant response, implemented primarily through forest management plans. FMPs produced substantial positive impacts especially in drought prone areas, increasing the robustness of the SES. The enforcement of regional forest policies and measures, as well as other social intervention and policies (i.e. the foundation of the University of Basilicata Region), improve the general context of knowledge and environmental awareness and substantially improve the level and the quality of the forest and environment management and planning.

Policy context
{xtypo_alert}AK: to check that implementation, impacts and effectiveness of selected policies are discussed in this text. Look at D342 to see if there is any additional information. {/xtypo_alert}

Progressive enforcement of administrative organization after the Constitutional reform takes hold and expands to forest policy and other environment policies, both at national and regional level. Regional forest protection policies represent a key response to LEDD in forest and/shrubland ecosystems with an effective positive change in the forest management and planning and in environmental protection. Financing for these policies, helps increase employment levels in the agriculture sector and in plant and vegetation capitals (positive responses). The implementation of nature protection, soil protection and horizontal policies is expected to gradually generate positive impacts.

A specific positive response to LEDD in the forest sector is the institution of Basilicata University in the 1982 with courses in Soil and Forest Sciences. The university positively impacts on the human capital but is, in itself, an effective response to LEDD.

Other CAP and development policy instruments have more adverse effects: tourism expansion has negative impacts in coastal forest areas as have CAP policies that continue to support cereal production and the conversion of marginal shrub areas to cereal cultivation, thereby increasing soil erosion and degradation processes.

Properties of the system
{xtypo_alert}AK: to check if there is any further relevant information in D333{/xtypo_alert}

Natural capital: Robustness of natural capital is stable. The diversity of natural capital generally increases. Redundancy follows the trends of the previous period. Connectedness of forest areas is good although following a gradient from coastal to inland and mountain areas. Rapidity of the natural capital (in the form of recovery from disturbance) shows slight improvement and is generally moderate, although with variation between municipalities.

Economic captial: Robustness, in terms of areas under protection and under Forest Management Plans, increases significantly. Diversity of economic capital follows the general trends of the first period. Economic connectedness continues to be characterized by territorial disparities between municipalities.

Social capital: --

Socio-ecological resilience
{xtypo_alert}AK: to be added, source: D333{/xtypo_alert}

Socio-ecological fit of the dominant response to LEDD
{xtypo_alert}AK: to be added, source: D333{/xtypo_alert}

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{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 6Sept12: Source D333.{/xtypo_alert}

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