The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), adopted in 1994, was one of three conventions of the 1992 "Rio Earth Summit", alongside the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Its adoption followed form 1977 Plan of Action to Combat Desertification (PACD), adopted by the United Nations Conference on Desertification (UNCOD), and the perceived need to address problems associated with desertification and drought faced by over one billion people, living mostly in Africa. The UNCCD has universal membership and is the only legally-binding international instrument to combat desertification. As of 2010, there are 194 Parties to the UNCCD divided into two groups: affected and developed country Parties.

Aims and objectives

The UNCCD's main purpose is to combat desertification and land degradation "in countries experiencing serious drought and/or desertification [...]". Further objectives include the improvement of land productivity, and ''the rehabilitation, conservation and sustainable management of land and water resources".

The Convention provides a broad framework to combat desertification. At the core of the UNCCD is a 'top-down-bottom-up' approach focused on adaptive management to provide context-specific solutions to environmental problems related to desertification and drought. Countries affected by desertification, land degradation and drought (DLDD) comply with the Convention through the development and implementation of national action programmes (NAP), as well as regional (RAP) and sub-regional (SRAP) action programmes. Action programmes outline practical measures to mitigate impacts in affected regions according to context-specific needs.

Much focus is placed upon building capacity among local people in affected countries, particularly women and farmers and enabling local people to reverse land degradation through self help.

Support to affected countries for these action programmes is provided by all other developed country Parties to the Convention through financial assistance and by facilitating the relevant knowledge and technology transfer.

In 2008, the UNCCD adopted a 10-year Strategy to enhance implementation of the Convention defining its strategic objectives as:

1. Improving the living conditions of affected populations
2. Improving the condition of affected ecosystems
3. Generating global benefits through effective implementation of the UNCCD
4. Mobilizing resources to support implementation of the Convention through building effective partnerships between national and international actors

Structure and components

The Convention is organised in six parts, totalling 40 articles covering relevant definitions and general obligations for affected and developed country Parties, criteria for the action programmes and supporting measures and the structure and the bodies of the UNCCD. The Annexes of the Convention are regionally specific, covering I) Africa, II) Asia, III) Latin America and the Caribbean, IV) Northern Mediterranean and V) Central and Eastern Europe.

The Convention's decision-making body is the Conference of the Parties (COP), meeting every two years to review implementation of the Convention. The COP is assisted by its Secretariat, the Global Mechanism (GM), the Committee for the Review of the Implementation of the Convention (CRIC) and the Committee on Science and Technology (CST).

The UNCCD does not have its own financing mechanism. The GM promotes the mobilisation of funds to developing Parties and increase the effectiveness of existing financing mechanisms, such as the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), the World Bank, the UNDP and the Global Environment Facility (GEF). While all Parties must make every effort to ensure that adequate financial resources are available, the financial burden to provide, seek out and mobilize funding is the responsibility of the developed Parties.

Implementation process and progress

As with most international treaties, implementation of international commitments relies upon national jurisdictions; as a general rule, Parties have to meet the objective, but they are free to choose the means to do so.

As required by the UNCCD, all country Parties have to develop National Action Programmes (NAPs) and provide regular reports to the COP on the measures it has taken to implement the UNCCD. Affected country Parties must describe relevant strategies and implementation of its action programme(s). Developed countries must report on measures taken to support action programmes. Actors involved in the implementation of the policies include national and local governments as well as local stakeholders (e.g. farmers and foresters).

Action Programmes are prepared and implemented by affected countries at the appropriate level (national, sub-regional and regional). The Convention provides general guidance on land use themes, such as cropland, grazing land or forest/shrublands. This guidance is to be incorporated in Action Programmes depending on context-specific drivers of desertification. Priority areas, therefore, differ from country to country, reflecting the diversity of national circumstances including the capacity to respond to causes and effects of desertification and land degradation. NAP's also differ in their ability to facilitate the implementation of the Convention, depending on the level of detail of measures, institutional framework, and implementation/monitoring mechanisms.

Even by the COP's admission, progress in the implementation of the Convention is slow and efforts to combat desertification under the UNCCD have not achieved measurable results. Although a large number of countries have proposed national action programmes, few seem to carry out their provisions.

The COP has identified and tried to address two main issues relating to the UNCCD:

UNCCD in the LEDDRA study sites

The European Union (1998), Greece (1997), Italy (1997), Spain (1996), China (1997) and Morocco (1997) are all full Parties to the UNCCD. All five countries are affected country Parties. Three study sites of the LEDDRA project - Greece, Italy and Spain - are located in the northern Mediterranean region; one -China- in the Asian region; and one –Morocco- in the African region.

The status of the NAPs in these countries is as follows:

• Greece: The NAP was submitted in 2001 by the Greek National Committee for Combating Desertification; it became law of the state in the same year.
• Italy: The NAP was submitted in 2000; the focal point for Italy is housed in the Ministero Affari Esteri DGCS.
• Spain: The NAP was submitted in 2008; the focal point for Spain is housed in the Subdirección General de Politica Forestal y Desertificacion Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Medio Rural y Marino.
• China: The NAP was submitted in 2006; the focal point for China is housed in the National Bureau to Combat Desertification, State Forestry Administration.
• Morocco: The most recent NAP was submitted in 2004; the focal point for Morocco is housed in the Haut Commissariat aux Eaux et Forêts et de la Lutte Contre la Désertification.

No regional or subregional action plan has been submitted for the Northern Mediterranean region. No regional plan has been submitted for Asia, and only one subregional action plan has been submitted, which does not include. No regional action plan has been submitted for Africa. Six subregional action plans have been submitted for Africa, one of which covers the Union du Maghreb Arabe (UMA) that includes Morocco (2000).

History, aims and objectives

The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), adopted in 1992, is one of the three UN Rio conventions. Its main goals are

1. the conservation of biological diversity (or biodiversity);
2. the sustainable use of its components;
3. the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources

The CBD includes two supplementary agreements: the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (2003) covering biotechnology issues and the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization (ABS, 2010).

In 2002, Parties to the CBD committed to "significantly reduce the rate of biodiversity loss by 2010". Failure to reach this target, led to the adoption of a Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020(the Aichi Biodiversity Targets), integrating more fully issues of sustainable use and of the safeguarding of ecosystems. The most relevant targets for LEDD are as follows:

• Reduce the rate of loss of all natural habitats including forests by at least one half, and significantly reduce fragmentation and degradation by 2020 (Target 5),
• Manage areas under agriculture, aquaculture and forestry sustainably by 2020 (Target 7),
• Bring pollution, including from excess nutrients, to levels that are not detrimental to ecosystem function and biodiversity by 2020 (Target 8)
• Minimize the multiple anthropogenic pressures on vulnerable ecosystems impacted by climate change by 2015 (Target 10).

Structure and components

The CBD currently has 193 parties. The Conference of the Parties (COP) is the decision-making body of the CBD. The Secretariat of the CBD is an administrative organ of the Convention, its role being to prepare and service meetings of the COP and other subsidiary bodies of the convention: including an open-ended intergovernmental scientific advisory body (Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice - SBSTTA) and three Working Groups: (1) on the review of implementation, (2) on traditional knowledge, innovation and practices and (3) on protected areas.

The Global Environment Facility (GEF) is the financial mechanism of the CBD and provides financial support to developing countries to implement the objectives and programmes of the CBD. In view of the weak level of implementation of the Convention, a strategy for resource mobilisation was adopted by the COP in 2008 to assist Parties to set national targets, actions and timeframes as well as to establish financial mechanisms, guided by a country specific resource mobilisation strategy for the effective implementation of the Convention .

Furthermore, a Clearing-House Mechanism (CHM) has been created to facilitate technical and scientific cooperation between Parties through the exchange of information and best practices.

Implementation process

The COP has endorsed seven thematic programmes that reflect the major biomes of the world and provide concrete guidance by describing principles, key issues, outputs and timetables. The work programmes on dry and sub-humid lands and agricultural biodiversity are the most relevant to to LEDD in cropland and grazing land and the extended programme of work on forest biodiversity, the most relevant for forests/shrubland.

Under the CBD, Parties have to develop or adapt strategies, plans or programmes reflecting the measures set out in the Convention. In addition, parties are required to integrate the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity into sectoral and cross-sectoral policies. A number of Parties have transposed these obligations by adopting national biodiversity strategies and action plans (NBSAP). Moreover, the CBD requires that Parties monitor biological diversity for the purposes of in-situ and ex-situ conservation, All of the above elements are contained in National Reports to be submitted regularly by the Parties to the Convention, describing national measures taken for the implementation of the Convention and their effectiveness and progress.

Regional and sub-regional capacity-building workshops are organised to strengthen national capacities for the development, implementation, reviewing, updating, and communication of National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans.

National implementation takes place at the competent geographical or governance level in the specific national context. However, the CBD supports decentralisation at the lowest possible level, through the promotion of the ecosystem approach. the CBD encourages integrated management of land, water and living resources, based on the recognition that humans, as well as their culture and use of resources, are an integral part of ecosystems.

However, the success of such activities very much depends on how effectively these elements are implemented on national and regional scale. Aside from the reporting duties mentioned above, the CBD does not have any mechanisms addressing compliance of Parties with their obligations under the Convention. A weakness of the CBD is that there are no established, formal non-compliance procedures (see UNEP 2007). This could provide an incentive for top Parties to perform poorly regarding their commitments or to delay their activities, since they do not face harsh consequences for doing so. In addition, the various programmes of work are not legally binding.

However, Parties of an international regime see COP decisions primarily as strong (political) commitments to implement the provisions of the treaty. Consequently, the provisions of the CBD in general, as well as the elements, goals and objectives contained in the programme of work on dry and sub-humid lands and agricultural biodiversity, can be regarded as key elements of a meaningful approach to combat LEDD on both an international and national scale. It is also noteworthy that most policies on conservation at national level strongly build on the decisions made by the COP of the CBD.

Greece, Italy, Spain, China and Morocco are all Parties of the CBD, as they have all ratified the Convention. With the exception of Greece, all examined states (Italy, Spain, China and Morocco) have compiled a national strategy document to implement the CBD targets.

CBD in cropland, grazing land and forest land

The work programmes on dry and sub-humid lands and agricultural biodiversity are the most relevant to to LEDD in cropland and grazing land and the extended programme of work on forest biodiversity, the most relevant for forests/shrubland.

The Programme of Work on agricultural biodiversity combines actions for all croplands. Land degradation is not specifically mentioned in the PoW on agricultural biodiversity, but as is the case for all CBD activities, the 'ecosystem approach' is recommended as the guiding principle to address the issues of agricultural biodiversity. In the context of cropland, the ecosystem approach points to strategies that go well beyond the conservation of species and genes and encompass the integrated management of land, water and living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way. This strategy has to be interpreted in specific regional contexts; but, in principle, it provides a sound approach to address LEDD in agricultural ecosystems, as water and land (including soils) are substantial components of agricultural biodiversity management. In addition to assessment, capacity building and mainstreaming, a set of activities is aimed at adaptive management. This refers to the identification and promotion of practices that strengthen the positive effects and mitigate the negative impacts of agriculture on biodiversity. Since 2008 the Programme has integrated a programme on agricultural biodiversity and biofuels based on the acknowledgement of the potentially high direct and indirect negative impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems of further expansion of energy crops.

The Programme of Work on dry and sub-humid lands encompasses both the assessment of the current situation and targeted action for the future. The former includes activities to increase the knowledge base on biodiversity and ecological processes and to identify local and global benefits and best management practices. The latter includes activities that deal with the promotion of and support for measures of protection and practices of resource management, mainly through capacity building, case studies and coordination with other conventions. The problems posed to biodiversity and degradation of over- and undergrazing are addressed explicitly in the Programme. Moreover, trampling and removal of biomass, alteration of species composition through selective consumption and changed inter-plant competition, and redistribution of nutrients are recognised as enduring impacts on pasture ecosystems, which are to be addressed by its activities. This Programme also advocates the ecosystem approach as a core CBD strategy with regard to grazing land, going beyond the conservation of species and genes. The ecosystem approach is a strategy for the integrated management of land, water and living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way, according to specific regional contexts.

The Extended Programme of Work on forest biodiversity is one of the largest in the CBD, aiming, among other things, at the conservation and sustainable use of forests. It attempts to tackle the degradation of forested lands include the following goals and activities: the restoration of biodiversity in degraded secondary forests, including plantations, with the aim to restore ecosystem services; improving knowledge and data on the status of degraded forests, deforested, restored and afforested lands; preventing losses caused by the unsustainable harvesting of timber and non-timber forest resources, e.g. by finding alternatives to the use of firewood by local communities.

Deforestation is identified as one of the main causes of land degradation and erosion, to be addressed though: (i) conservation, sustainable use, and benefit-sharing, (ii) institutional and socio-economic enabling environment, and (iii) knowledge, assessment, and monitoring.

History and current status

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC or Convention) was one of three conventions adopted at the 1992 "Rio Earth Summit", alongside the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), and entered into force on 21 March 1994. The Convention was born amid recognition that "the climate system is a shared resource whose stability can be affected by industrial and other emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases" .

Aims and objectives

The objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere "at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human induced) interference with the climate system". This should be done within an appropriate time-frame that enables ecosystems to naturally adapt to climate change, ensures that food production is not at risk and enables the continuation of sustainable economic development. Under the Convention, parties aim to protect the climate system for the present and future generations, take into account the needs and circumstances of developing country Parties, utilize the precautionary approach, promote and employ sustainable development and, finally, cooperate in order to facilitate a positive international economic system leading to sustainable economic growth and allowing Parties to better attend to climate change problems.

Structure and components

The Convention comprises 26 articles and 2 annexes. The main sections outline relevant definitions, principles/objectives, commitments, research, education/public awareness, the bodies of the Convention (Conference of the Parties, Secretariat, Subsidiary body for scientific and technological advice, Subsidiary body for implementation), financial mechanisms and aspects related to implementation. Parties agree to adopt a cross-sectoral approach to climate change and develop national programs to mitigate climate change, reaffirming, however, the principle of national sovereignty in international cooperation.

The most demanding requirements are placed on industrialized nations, according to the principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities". Industrialized nations assist climate-change related activities in developing countries via the provision of financial support and the transfer of technology. This assistance is provided through a grants and loans system managed by the Global Environment Facility (GEF), subject to review every four years.

Parties have also set up special funds in addition to providing guidance to the GEF, namely: the Special Climate Change Fund, Least Developed Countries Fund, the Adaptation Fund and more recently the "Green Climate Fund". Further support may be provided by developed country Parties via bilateral, regional and other multilateral channels.

Implementation process

There are currently a total of 195 Parties (194 States and the EU) to the UNFCCC, divided into three groups: Annex I and II (developed countries) and non-Annex I (countries with economies in transition to a market economy and least developed countries). All LEDDRA study site countries are parties to the convention. Greece, Italy and Spain are Annex I countries, while China and Morocco are non-Annex I.

The UNFCCC does not set any mandatory limits on GHG emissions or include enforcement mechanisms. However, the Kyoto Protocol (2005) supplementing the UNFCCC, has established legally binding obligations for developed countries to reach GHG emissions goals and a compliance mechanism with comprehensive competences. Major emitters – such as the US – are not Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.

At the national and regional levels, Parties are to promote and support awareness of and public access to information on climate change and its effects. Scientific, technical and managerial personnel should also be trained accordingly. Internationally, cooperation should be promoted regarding the development and exchange of informational materials on climate change and its effects as well as on education and training programs.

Commitments of Parties differ according to Annex. General requirements include the periodic submission of national reports to the COP on implementation progress. For Annex I Parties, it's necessary to submit national communications (reporting on national GHG emissions, climate-related policies and measures, GHG projections, vulnerability and adaptation to climate change, financial assistance and technology transfer to non-Annex I Parties, and actions on raising public awareness on climate change) as well as national GHG inventories containing information on GHG emissions (such as activity data, emission factors and methodologies used to estimate these emissions). National communications are submitted every 4-5 years and national GHG inventories annually.

Non-Annex I Parties are subject to differing requirements for their national communications than the Annex I countries in terms of necessary content and timetables for submission and additionally receive financial and technical support for the document preparation. A general requirement is for non-Annex I countries (except for the least developed countries) to submit an initial national communication.

The Kyoto Protocol also contains additional reporting requirements for land use, land-use change and forestry activities (LULUCF). Annex I Parties must account for changes in carbons stocks resulting from afforestation, reforestation and afforestation. Emissions from forest management, cropland management, grazing land management and revegetation are part of voluntary accounting.

Regarding cropland, Parties are required to submit information on CO2 emissions from liming, N2O emissions to disturbance due to land converted to cropland, non-CO2 emissions from biomass burning on land converted to cropland and biomass burning (field burning of agriculture residues) on cropland. For grasslands, Parties are required to submit information on stock changes of soil organic carbon and living biomass; CO2 emissions from liming; CO2 and non- CO2 emissions from burning of grasslands outside the tropics; and CO2 and non- CO2 emissions from burning on land converted to grasslands.

For forest land, parties must report on land converted to forest land, non- CO2 emissions (N2O, CH4) reported for forest fertilization, forest fires and drainage of forest soils, CO2 emissions from liming on forest land; CO2 emissions from forest fires either as C stock changes or emissions, and direct N2O emissions from fertilizer applied to forest (Sanz-Sánchez 2008).For forest land, parties must report on land converted to forest land, non- CO2 emissions (N2O, CH4) reported for forest fertilization, forest fires and drainage of forest soils, CO2 emissions from liming on forest land; CO2 emissions from forest fires either as C stock changes or emissions, and direct N2O emissions from fertilizer applied to forest.

REDD+

In addition to reporting requirements, the Kyoto Protocol contains two flexible mechanisms which allow for the implementation of LULUCF projects. The clean development mechanism (CDM) makes provisions for implementation of afforestation and reforestation in non-Annex I countries whereby Annex I parties can achieve compliance with reduction commitments. Moreover, joint implementation, enables Annex I Parties to implement sequestration projects in another Annex I country.

The most relevant element within UNFCC with direct implications for LEDD processes is the REDD+ mechanism (2007), whereby developing countries are encouraged to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, conservation of forest carbon stocks, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks. REDD+ implementation relies upon (i) "the development of national strategies or action plans, policies and measures, and capacity-building"; (ii) "the implementation of national policies and measures and national strategies or action plans that could involve further capacity-building, technology development and transfer and results-based demonstration activities"; (iii) "results-based actions that should be fully measured, reported and verified".

The maintenance of forest carbon stocks, afforestation and reforestation activities can have strong synergies with biodiversity, contributing to the prevention or reversal of LEDD processes in degraded forests / shrubland. Moreover, afforestation can be an appropriate measure for the reversal of LEDD on degraded croplands and grazing lands. On the other hand, poor design and implementation of REDD+ activities may also entail risks to biodiversity and local indigenous people, including, for example, the introduction of biofuel crops, displacement of deforestation and forest degradation to areas of lower carbon value and high biodiversity value, or increased pressure on non-forest ecosystems with high biodiversity value.

At this stage, funding for pilot REDD+ projects is available from the GEF through allocations to individual countries within the scope of biodiversity, climate change and land degradation activities. Numerous uncertainties surround REDD+ centering around its specific design at national levels which will define its ultimate environmental and governance impacts.

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 24Apr13: Source D141 (common text for all land uses).{/xtypo_alert}

The Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations (FAO) is an intergovernmental organization with 191 Member Nations. Its primary mandate is to ensure global food security, by improving agricultural productivity and raising nutrition levels. Its activities comprise four main areas: (1) knowledge sharing through the collection, analysis and dissemination of data that aid development, (2) Sharing policy expertise: devising agricultural policy, supporting planning, drafting effective legislation and creating national strategies to achieve rural development and hunger alleviation goals, (3) Providing a meeting place for nations, with the intention to be a neutral forum, (4) Bringing knowledge to the field (implementation of field projects).  

The FAO publishes a range of different resources, including technical documents codes of conduct; interactive tools for use at the national level; early warning and disaster-prevention systems; data, including maps and charts and thousands of other multimedia resources. These address a diversity of topics such as agriculture, fisheries, nutrition and forestry, as well as specific issues such as trade, country-specific information, food safety and deforestation. The FAO deals with both specific and cross-cutting issues, including LEDD in all three types of land use: cropland, grazing land and forests/shrubland.

Specifically, the FAO has published a range of voluntary guidelines with relevance to land use and soil. These include, for example:

• The FAO Guidelines for Soil Description (first published in 1990) that provide an internationally common language and complete procedure for soil description and for collecting field data necessary for classification. The recent 4th addition (2006a) also takes into account some new international developments in soil information systems and soil classification;
• Guidelines for Land Use Planning (FAO 1993);
• Voluntary Guidelines on Responsible management of planted forests (FAO 2006b)
• Voluntary Guidelines on the governance of tenure (FAO 2009).
• Methodology for Sustainable Grassland Management (FAO 2011)

The FAO Voluntary Guidelines generally provide practical guidance to states, civil society and the private sector. They constitute a framework for policies, legislation and programs, but do not establish legally binding obligations nor replace existing national or international laws, treaties or agreements. Voluntary Guidelines are often supported by Technical Guides in order to facilitate implementation.

These guidelines can potentially have important practical role. Methodology for Sustainable Grassland Management (Li et al 2011), for example, could prove to be a very important tool in supporting the restoration of degraded grasslands by enabling the inclusion of grassland restoration in carbon crediting schemes. The methodology sets out a process for reliable estimates of the sequestration effect of improved grassland management.

In September 2011, the FAO launched the Global Soil Partnership for Food Security and Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation. This initiative has the potential to contribute to knowledge exchange, capacity building and improved governance for sustainable and productive soil management affecting cropland, grazing land, and forests/shrubland.

Despite the absence of an enforcement function, the FAO mandate and activities meant that it plays a central role in facilitating sustainable land management and is a key stakeholder in addressing LEDD processes internationally as well as at country level.