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In »LEDD issues in forests & shrubland worldwide we introduced and discussed the main LEDD issues which concern forests and shrubland worldwide, in the countries where the study sites are located and in the broader regions of the study sites themselves. These LEDD issues do not occur in isolation but are driven by interdependent environmental, economic and social processes, operating at multiple scales, singly and in combination with each other.

This section of the Deliverable report will discuss these key drivers at global, national and regional spatial levels.  Policy drivers are discussed here only briefly. For a full discussion of policy drivers in the three land themes, please refer to »Policy context and policy recommendations for LEDD in forests & shrubland: general.

The MEA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2003, p.15) defines direct and indirect drivers of ecosystem change and their relationship as follows:

• "A driver is any factor that changes an aspect of an ecosystem.
• A direct driver unequivocally influences ecosystem processes and can therefore be identified and measured to differing degrees of accuracy.
• An indirect driver operates more diffusely, often by altering one or more direct drivers, and its influence is established by understanding its effect on a direct driver.
• Both indirect and indirect drivers often operate synergistically. Changes in land cover, for example, can increase the likelihood of introduction of alien invasive species. Similarly, technological advances can increase rates of economic growth."

In LEDDRA, the above distinction is adopted. Practically, direct drivers of LEDD are intentional and unintentional human activities and interventions that cause changes to the characteristics of the environment; i.e. they cause LEDD directly (e.g. land management practices, deforestation, overgrazing, etc.). Indirect drivers are those socio-economic, cultural, institutional, political and other forces that drive people to undertake activities that may or may not cause LEDD (e.g. demand for food, prices, policies, norms, property rights, etc.).

Table 1 below presents the direct and indirect drivers of LEDD in forests & shrubland. Drivers operate at all spatial levels (global, national, regional, local); their specific operational form depending on the level concerned.

Table 1. Direct and indirect drivers of LEDD in forests & shrubland

Source: (Adapted from Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2003)

The drivers of land and ecosystem degradation and desertification (LEDD) are generally human-induced and they are related to the social, economic and political conditions prevailing in places where forests & shrublands provide important resources and services to nature and society (Hassan et al., 2005). However, in the last decades, environmental factors and global scale natural disturbances play a key role in forest ecosystem dynamics, also acting as key drivers of ecosystem degradation and desertification.

Agriculture

Historically, agricultural activities have been the most important direct drivers of land use change, mainly involving the clearing of forests & shrublands to convert them to cropland and pastures. In the last decades, the increasing demand for new land to produce food, feed and fuel has been met through deforestation. As estimated by Gibbs et al. (2010), during the 1980s and 1990s, more than 80 percent of new agricultural land in the tropics came from intact and natural forests representing easily accessible areas with fertile soil, allowing rainfed agriculture, and at the same time with saleable tree species. An example is the conversion of Asia's rainforests for oil-palm cultivation.

The contribution of individual agricultural activities to forest fragmentation, forest productivity decline and desertification processes is influenced by the prevailing economic, demographic and technological conditions at the regional level. For example, a smallholder with a low level of productivity per hectare, with poor technological infrastructure, needs more land than a larger and technologically advanced farm. Also, extensive cattle production requires more land than intensive vegetable cultivation. Likewise, higher timber prices put pressure on old growth forests but, at the same time, they create incentives for reforestation. Deforestation dynamics driven by agriculture and pasture depend on the type of agricultural system, the level of development, distance from markets and commodity prices. In Africa, deforestation is caused mainly by small-scale farming and fuel wood collection, while in Latin America it is driven more by large-scale agriculture, and in particular by extensive cattle production. In the Asia-Pacific region, the agricultural sector is still the most important deforestation driver. A clear example of this type of process is represented by large-scale agriculture in the Brazilian Amazon, which contributes to deforestation through the conversion of forests to cropland, but which has started with small-scale timber extraction and subsistence agriculture. Recently, the expansion of large-scale mechanised agriculture at the forest frontier has been driven by an increase in soybean cultivation. As shown by Morton et al. (2006), in the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso, there is a significant correlation between deforestation and the price of soybeans (Figure 1).  

Figure 1. Trends in land use after 2001-2004 deforestation events >25 ha in Mato Grosso state, Brazil. Summary of conversion dynamics by post-clearing land cover from satellite-based phenology information in the years after forest clearing. Inflation-adjusted prices per 60-kg sack of soybeans for the same period as the annual deforestation increment (September-August) are plotted on the right-hand axis in Brazilian Reais (R$). Source: (Morton et al. 2006)

Agricultural activities characterised by poor practices and unsustainable management are also important drivers of soil erosion and compaction processes, forest fires, forest productivity decline and loss of biodiversity. One of the most important characteristics of these agricultural drivers is poor land management techniques such as overgrazing. Overgrazing is generally linked to land ownership issues, as traditional land tenure rights and communal land use patterns sometimes result in overgrazing of communal areas. Overgrazing can be considered as a key driver of land degradation, erosion and desertification through a decline of forest productivity. In particular, overgrazing from cattle, sheep and goats in forests & shrublands can lead to soil erosion and to bush encroachment and also limits natural forest renovation, leads to loss of biodiversity and forest productivity decline; a very different practice from a moderate use of grazing that may instead be useful in some phases of forest management.

Forestry, timber extraction and energy demand

Forests worldwide represent a very valuable natural resource, providing a wide range of wood and non-wood forest products. In particular, wood is one of the world’s most ubiquitous and important industrial raw material and source of energy.

The international demand and trade in forest products (wood and wood products) has increased with an average annual growth rate of 6.6 percent over the last 30 years (Advisory Committee on paper and wood products 2007). This fast growth was mostly the result of developments in the international trade in secondary processed wood products (an average increase of above 8 percent per year); particularly wooden furniture. However, these data are underestimated due to the lack of information on domestic consumption of fuel wood.

Forest management and silvicultural practices play a significant role in land use change and, if improperly applied, in forest ecosystem degradation worldwide. Differences across continents, regions and countries in environmental, socio economic and technological conditions determine different forest resource exploitation and management models, leading to different pressure levels and problems in forest ecosystems. In particular, mismanagement and overexploitation of forests is the main cause of forest ecosystem degradation. Furthermore, in many developing countries, poverty and the lack of policies and laws regulating forest resource exploitation are other indirect drivers, which lead to unsustainable wood extraction.

As a result, some common forest management systems for timber production can often lead to the transformation of a healthy forest into a simplified structure or even a monoculture for timber. Silvicultural practices have usually favoured one or a few species, depending on particular characteristics such as productivity, growth rate, quality and quantity of wood production and sprouting capacity, among others. This simplification of forest systems has impacted different structures and processes at different scales, from the stand to the landscape level, with loss of biodiversity and general forest degradation due to the change from complex forest ecosystems into simplified, even-aged monoculture stands.

In other cases, according to Laporte et al. (2007), forest mismanagement leads to overexploitation of forest resources. Industrial logging has become the most extensive land use in central Africa, with more than 600,000 square kilometres (30 percent) of forest currently under concession. It is expected that industrial logging concessions will expand further, with commensurate increases in the rates of deforestation and degradation. Related to logging activities, the practice of selective logging represents the felling of one or two trees, leaving the forest around those trees intact. Selective logging, often believed to be a sustainable alternative to clear-cutting, is also responsible for forest degradation with loss in biodiversity and forest productivity decline. As large trees are logged, the canopy thins, drying the forest and increasing its vulnerability to agricultural fires set in surrounding areas.

The main current and past use of wood worldwide is as a fuel, representing the world’s most important form of non-fossil energy. Today, millions of people in developing countries are reliant upon wood for energy production. Africa and Latin America are the main regions where wood is used primarily for heating and cooking. The largest producers of fuelwood are India, China and Brazil. The United States, Mexico, Finland, Sweden and Austria are also large producers and consumers of fuelwood, amongst the industrialised countries (Steierer et al. 2007). In recent years, wood has attracted attention as a renewable energy source and, thus, an environmental friendly alternative to fossil energy (FAO 2008). In Europe and North America, fuelwood consumption has been influenced by new processing technologies with the production of pellets, briquettes and cellulose-based ethanol.

The responses to this increasing demand for fuelwood vary worldwide, with different pressures and problems on forest ecosystems. In developing countries the main problem is deforestation due to severe overexploitation and depletion of forests, especially in the case of open-access resources with poorly defined property rights.

In other cases, increasing demand for fuelwood has transformed entire forest sectors, with changes in forest management and forest composition. In particular, forest owners and managers have started planting and managing monoculture fast-growing plantations for wood energy. Forest plantations have a range of impacts in socio-economic and environmental terms in that they potentially offer many direct and indirect environmental benefits, but they may also have negative environmental and socio-economic impacts as well.

The introduction of fast-growing exotic species for industrial wood or biomass production represents an important opportunity for developing countries. Plantation management presents an opportunity to create economic flows, infrastructures and employment opportunities. The use of fuelwood to produce energy, rather than fossil fuels, could be considered a positive environmental benefit due to the considerable reduction in net carbon dioxide emissions (Nabuurs et al. 2007; Piao et al. 2009). Forest plantations offer other environmental benefits if they replace annual crops, heavily grazed pastures, or degraded lands. Benefits include protection against water pollution, soil erosion and wildfires. In contrast to these benefits, forest plantations can be considered drivers of biodiversity loss through alteration of forest structure, creation of monocultures and use of non-native tree species, which local wildlife are less able to use and, in some cases, these non-native species are invasive.

Extractive activities (mining)

On a global scale, mineral extraction activities are responsible for 15 percent of forest cover losses (Geist and Lambin 2002). This driver contributes to forest degradation or complete deforestation, depending on the size and type of the mining operation. Generally, mining areas are located in remote forested areas that are already exploited for wood products. In the Amazon basin, a variety of minerals such as diamonds, bauxite (aluminium ore), manganese, iron, tin, copper, lead and gold are extracted (Gurmendi 1999). The high economic value of these minerals encourages mining companies to extend mining operations and, consequently, to search for new sites, causing severe degradation and deforestation. As a result of the infrastructure needs associated with these extractive activities, large plots of forests are also cleared for the construction of new roads.  Finally, mining operations often have serious environmental impacts on water, soil and air quality, thus, indirectly affecting forest health.

Tourism

Increased tourism activity can have both positive and negative impacts on forest conservation, depending on how tourism is managed (Yuan et al. 2008). The creation of National Parks has undoubtedly helped to protect forest ecosystems but mismanagement of tourism activity has also caused damage in some areas. Generally, tourism is seen as offering economic opportunities and is, therefore, encouraged. However, tourism development may be implemented without associated monitoring and management strategies, which may be considered expensive or unnecessary, to the detriment of forest cover and quality.

Tourism pressures on forest ecosystems include urban expansion and infrastructure development, construction of tourist facilities and resorts, water, soil and air pollution, noise, light pollution, disturbance to wildlife, forest fires, soil erosion and compaction and loss of biodiversity. The impact on forests from tourism development is a concern for forest ecosystems worldwide (Nyaupane 2006; Bruyere 2009; Heinen 2010; Yuan et al. 2008).

Urbanisation

The term ‘urbanisation’ refers to an increase in the number of new settlements and also to the expansion of existing urban areas and it is one of the main direct drivers of land degradation processes (Munn et al. 2002; Zhang and Nagubadi 2005). Urbanisation encompasses a number of different processes such as urban sprawl, new settlements, coastal development and tourism development.  

Increasing urbanisation involves changes in land use not only in forest ecosystems and shrublands, but also in agriculture, as a result of land abandonment and agricultural land conversion. Impacts can also include a decline in the quality of forests in close proximity to urban areas. These phenomena have several consequences on socio-economic and ecological systems and result in changes in the availability of ecosystem resource and services. In particular, the increasing presence of centres of population increases or creates new demands for water, food, energy, transportation and infrastructure.

The impact of urbanisation not only involves land use change but also ecosystem change in terms of resource overexploitation and pollution, not only in the immediate vicinity of the urban area, but across the whole watershed. Pollutants may be transported through air or water to distant locations, for example as in the case of anthropogenic N inputs, which are responsible for coastal eutrophication (Faulkner 2004).

The key issues arise at the interface between the urban and forested area. Conceptually, the urban-rural interface is not simply a “peri-urban” zone or geographic interstice between the urban built environment and the rural landscape, but also it can also be considered as an array of networks connecting urban agents and rural producers (Browder 2002).

This interface involves not only biophysical processes such as land use changes, ecosystem fragmentation, limited water availability, habitat loss, biodiversity loss and nutrient cycling modification, but also socio-economic influences on rural and forested areas with increasing goods demands and market development, technological improvement and more new land use in general.

In Europe, and especially in the Mediterranean basin, urban regions have experienced population and economic growth (Longhi and Musolesi 2007; Turok and Mykhnenko 2007), leading to a marked transition from compact urban forms to more dispersed or polycentric developments (Weber et al. 2005; Kasanko et al. 2006; Couch et al. 2007). The process of spatial diffusion of both the urban population and economic activities over a wider area has modified the growth-oriented model traditionally observed in several Mediterranean urban areas by introducing new forms of relationship between coastal and inland spaces, urban and rural territories, central and peripheral zones. The process of city spread, the growth of centres out of the traditional boundaries of the compact city, as well as the consolidating sprawl and distribution over seaside areas are the direct drivers of land use conversion and soil sealing (Genske 2003). Their importance has been enhanced by the intrinsic ecological fragility of the Mediterranean landscape, which is also subject to climate change and increasing aridity and drought (Johnson and Lewis 2007). Urban spillover across neighbouring agricultural land, the consequent disappearance of the urban-rural gradient typical of southern Europe, progressive habitat fragmentation and the formation of a mixed landscape are all drivers of soil degradation in peri-urban areas.

Forest fires

Forest fires represent another important direct driver affecting forest and shrubland ecosystems with dramatic environmental, social and economic consequences. Forest fires have large negative impacts on both regional and continental scales, affecting biodiversity, ecosystem balance and productivity and the livelihood and health of local people. Also, they negatively affect infrastructure, transport and the forest industry. Globally, forest fires are also responsible for the release of large amounts of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. Not only can fires cause changes in CO2 levels, which can lead to shifts in the carbon (C) balance and enhanced emissions of greenhouse gases, but increases in atmospheric CO2 levels and global warming can feedback on fire regimes and fire severity. On a regional scale, fires account for nearly one third of anthropogenic CO2 equivalent emissions (Schimel and Baker 2002).

At the local scale, forest fires strongly impact forest landscapes, altering their ecosystem balance. An important factor in the level of damage caused by fires is the combination of their effects and frequency, which can lead to different stages of structural regression, particularly in Mediterranean forests. The principal problem is a decline in forest ecosystem succession and a transition from forest to savannas, shrubland and grassland (Figure 2). These processes lead to the destruction of habitats, reduction or elimination of plant and animal species with consequent negative effects on biodiversity (Alvarez et al. 2009; Acacio et al. 2009).

Figure 2. Rate of transitions (percent of transitions per year) from each vegetation patch-type to the others (1958–2002). Source: (Acacio et al. 2009)

Usually, there is a reduction in the amount of biomass, with negative effects on soil protection, leading to soil degradation (erosion, alteration of chemical and physical soils characteristics, landslides etc.). In particular, alterations of soil chemical and physical characteristics involve changes in soil porosity, with a general reduction in soil ventilation and infiltration capacity, reduction in organic matter content and the development of a hydrophobic layer at a depth of 10-15 cm (Bárcenas-Moreno et al. 2011; Martí-Roura et al. 2011).

Severe fires, such as wildfires, generally have several negative effects on soil. They cause significant removal of organic matter, deterioration of both structure and porosity, considerable loss of nutrients through volatilisation, ash entrapment in smoke columns, leaching and erosion, and marked alteration of both quantity and specific composition of microbial and soil-dwelling invertebrate communities. However, despite common perceptions, if plants succeed in promptly recolonising the burnt area, the pre-fire level of most properties can be recovered and even enhanced (Certini 2005).

Human activities cause most fires in forests & shrublands. In general, they are the result of misuse of fire for conversion of forests to agricultural lands, maintenance of grazing lands, extraction of non-wood forest products, hunting, and clearing of land for mining, industrial development and resettlement. Forest fires may also be the result of personal or ownership conflicts. In Mediterranean forest ecosystems, fire disturbance is a primary agent of change, shaping the distribution and composition of most plant communities in these regions. Rare causes for forest fires are the result of leisure use of forests such as unattended camp fires or barbeques and discarded cigarette butts.

Fire impacts on land cover condition and community dynamics may be extreme and/or irreversible if the disturbance regime exceeds its natural range of variability and return time (Dale et al., 2000). The natural fire regimes in the world’s Mediterranean forests have been altered through intensive and extensive land use change as well as intentional use and suppression of fire (Espelta et al. 2002; Pausas 2003). The magnitude and direction of these changes vary from region to region. However, the impact of altered fire regimes may be more influential than climate factors in shaping future Mediterranean forest ecosystem dynamics (Syphard et al. 2007).

Deforestation

Deforestation processes represent a direct driver of forest ecosystem degradation worldwide. Deforestation is generally related to land clearance for agriculture, mineral extraction, construction of reservoirs for hydro-electric power generation, transport infrastructure, forestry, wood extraction, urban settlements and tourism development. Land cleared for agriculture may eventually lose its fertility and become suitable only as rangeland. Deforestation continues at an alarmingly high rate of approximately 13 Mha per year (FAO 2010a). At the same time, reforestation, landscape restoration and natural expansion of forests have significantly reduced the net total loss of forest area. Net global change in forest area in the period 2000–2010 is estimated at -5.2 Mha per year, down from -8.3 Mha per year in the period 1990-200, with few signs of a significant decrease over time due to reforestation/afforestation and natural expansion of forests in some countries and regions. South America has suffered the largest net loss of forests, followed by Africa (Figure 3) (FAO 2010).

Deforestation processes are often linked to socio-economic and political pressures, flowing from the needs of growing populations living in marginal areas at subsistence levels. Much more important is deforestation caused by land use change: from natural rainforest to monoculture plantations of highly profitable crops such as palm oil (Elaeis guineensis) in the Far East. Furthermore, the combination of these processes with poor harvesting and agricultural practices represent the main causes of soil erosion and land desertification.

Figure 3. Annual change in forest area by region 1990–2010. Source: (FAO, 2010)

Climate change

In the last few decades, changing climate conditions have been one of the most important direct biophysical drivers affecting forest ecosystems and shrublands. The increasing number of extreme climatic events is considered a significant cause of forest degradation and tree mortality (Allen et al. 2010). Attribution of the specific cause of forest degradation, however, is often difficult due to the multiplicity of potential drivers noted in the preceding sections. Evidence reported by Williams et al. (2010) showed that increasing drought and heat waves were positively correlated with the incidence of wildfire, insect pests and increased disease risks in high density forest stands, suggesting the key role of forest management in the mitigation of forest degradation risk.

forests & shrublands are more sensitive to climate change effects under semi-arid or dry sub-humid climatic conditions and irregular rainfall with long dry periods and high summer temperatures. The forest degradation process is characterised by forest productivity decline, soil degradation with loss of organic matter content and loss of biodiversity. Besides these responses to climate change, on a global scale forest ecosystems are able to influence climate through physical, chemical, and biological processes that affect global energy exchanges, the hydrological cycle, and atmospheric composition. These complex and nonlinear forest-atmosphere interactions can dampen or amplify anthropogenic climate change. Tropical, temperate, and boreal reforestation and afforestation attenuate global warming through carbon sequestration. Tropical forests mitigate warming through evaporative cooling, but the low albedo of boreal forests represents a positive forcing of climate change, with warming effects on atmosphere (Bonan 2008).

Policies

Policies represent an important indirect key driver involved in the mitigation and prevention of land degradation, but at the same time they may have detrimental effects on forest ecosystems. Policies concerning land, water and natural resource management affect forest ecosystems and shrublands by regulating activities and protecting the environment against LEDD. However, other policies, such as economic, development and infrastructure policies may also have indirect impacts on the way that forests are managed and used. In this way, policies represent one of the most important challenges for local, regional and national governments to design sustainable management of renewable natural resources (FAO 2010b). Forest policies represent an important indirect driver to preserve the regulating, supporting, provisioning and cultural forest ecosystem services. A more complete discussion on forest policies is described in »Policy context and policy recommendations for LEDD in forests & shrubland: general.

In many developing countries the lack of policies dedicated to forest ecosystems, the large amount of unallocated public lands and poor institutional and regulatory capacities have often been responsible for deforestation and land degradation processes. According to the World Bank, estimates of illegal logging around the world account for US$15 billion per year (Contreras et al. 2007). In the last few decades, the growing interest of the international community in the role of forests in the mitigation and regulation of global biochemical and climate processes has provided a strong stimulus for the development of more effective policies and for better and more efficient land, water and natural resources management (FAO and ITTO 2009).

Starting with the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in 1992, the declaration of “Forest Principles” and Chapter 11 of Agenda 21 “Combating Deforestation”, forest policies have been further developed within the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF) in 1995. The main objectives of IPF were to formulate options for further actions in order to combat deforestation and forest degradation, to promote international co-operation in financial assistance and technology transfer, scientific research, forest assessment, and development of criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management. In the period 1997-2000, the Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IFF) was established to address the main issues and criticism pointed out by the IPF. In October 2000, the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations (ECOSOC), in Resolution 2000/35 established the United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF). The UNFF1 Report outlined the UNFF Plan of Action and the first Multi-Year Programme of Work (MYPOW) from 2001-2005.

The key role of forests in climate change mitigation has been established within the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), and with the Kyoto Protocol  “Annex-1” countries (i.e., industrialised) may use CO2 removals (i.e., “sink”) from LULUCF to meet their emission reduction targets during the first commitment period (2008-2012). In particular, a country must include emissions and removal from direct human-induced Afforestation/Reforestation/Deforestation since 1990, and may include any of the following “activities”: forest management, cropland management, grazing-land management, re-vegetation (Grassi et al. 2010). In this way, the “Annex-1” countries of the Kyoto Protocol have developed most of their forest policies with relevant effects on land use and forest management in the last decade.

Finally, with the Copenhagen climate conference, the negotiation for emission reduction and mitigation between countries will be based on the mechanism of UN-REDD (United Nations Collaborative Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries). This programme, to be implemented on a voluntary basis in the developing countries, is widely considered a cost-effective strategy to reduce emissions from deforestation and an essential tool to encourage developing countries to act against climate change through the implementation of effective forest policies.

As already mentioned policies or their misapplication may have detrimental effects on forest ecosystems and thus may be considered both as indirect and direct drivers of LEDD issues in forest and shrubland ecosystem. An example is the set-aside policy of the European Union which, starting from 1988, has been modified several times in order to mitigate the unexpected negative effects of the set-aside policy itself from both environmental and socio-economic points of view. To this end, the European Union introduced Directive 42/2001/CE concerning the introduction of a new strategic environmental assessment tool (SEA), in order to evaluate a wide range of public plans and programmes (e.g. on land use, transport, energy, waste, agriculture, etc) and avoid unexpected detrimental effects of EU policies.

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Agriculture

Forests and shrublands cover about 25 percent of the Matera study site and represent the ancient remnants of much larger forests, deforested in the past for agriculture and grazing. Grazing in forest is widely used in the Mediterranean basin and it has influenced the forest ecosystem through plant adaptive strategies such as seed and fruit dispersion by animals, and seed germination. Moreover, in the study site and in the Mediterranean region in general, grazing in forests, if rationally managed, has always been considered an important part of agricultural activities and a source of income diversification for farmers.

In the last few years in the Basilicata Region, particularly in the Matera area, this practice has been irrationally and uncontrollably exercised, becoming a direct driver for forest ecosystem and shrubland degradation. Overgrazing is responsible for decreases in forest cover, reduction in productivity, biological and structural simplification, soil chemical and physical degradation, erosion, compaction, loss of organic matter, nutrients, water storage capability and of forest productivity.

Overgrazing in forests also has negative effects on forest renewal with the consequence of biodiversity reduction and root damage. The indirect effects of grazing include a deterioration of soil physical characteristics including porosity and organic matter loss, which result in root exposure and widening. Furthermore, grazing in forests results in loss of soil fertility, driving further forest degradation processes (Figure 1). The damage caused by overgrazing is also dependent on the type of livestock used (size, species, breed and management). In the Matera study site, cattle are the main forest grazers, with sheep and goats concentrated mainly in shrublands.

Figure 1. Forest grazing in Gallipoli Cognato Forest (Basilicata Region). Source: (Author Angelo Nolè)

In the Basilicata Region, the main tool for management and planning in forest areas are the Forest Management Plans discussed above, in which not only vegetation characteristics are qualitatively and quantitatively analysed to better define their sustainable use, but also other activities such as grazing are defined and managed. The assessment of resources availability (depending on climatic conditions) is essential to prevent land degradation and reduce loss of forest cover.

Forestry, wood extraction and energy demand 

Mediterranean forests are subject to increasing demand for energy production at the local scale and also to increasing demand for other forest goods and services. Thus, forestry, wood extraction and energy demand act as direct drivers on forest ecosystem and shrubland modification and ecosystem degradation. Although forest management represents the most important instrument for the sustainable exploitation of forest resources and services, in the Mediterranean region the difficulties in accessing these resources and the declining price of forest products negatively affect the profitability of forest management. In the Basilicata region and in the Matera study site, forest management has been supported by a contribution of up to 75 percent of the cost of the preparation and implementation of Forest Management Plans for all forest owners (both public and private sector). Starting in 2004, a programme of forest management planning led to the implementation of plans aimed at the conservation and development of forest resources. The implementation of forest management plans is also crucial to prevent the overexploitation of resources under the extreme climate conditions which characterise the Matera study site.

Tourism and recreation

Forest tourism and recreation activities in Basilicata are widespread and often day-based, particularly during summer weekends. The most common type is seaside tourism in the coastal areas (Ionian and Tyrrhenian coasts). Visitor numbers are also increasing in Pollino National Park and in Vulture, Gallipoli-Cognato and Matera parks. Basilicata tourism is based primarily on domestic visits with relatively few international visitors (mainly from European countries). Most of the tourists (about 70 percent) are concentrated in the coastal area, though the Basilicata Region potentially has several areas with elevated tourism quality. The reasons for this distribution are related, on one hand, to the lack of suitable tourist infrastructure, and, on the other, to the lack of significant marketing and promotion of local areas. In the forests close to urban centres, there are picnic areas for seasonal (summer) tourism and recreation activities. These activities can cause land degradation through lighting fires, litter, heavy trampling, and destruction of flora and fauna.

Tourism demand has also led to an increase in tourist accommodation facilities in the Ionian and Tyrrhenian coasts, triggering urban sprawl and further coastal strip development, which has brought associated land use changes, natural and semi-natural habitat deterioration and fragmentation, and biodiversity loss.

Forest fires

In the Mediterranean basin forest fires are predominantly an anthropogenic phenomenon (95 percent on the average), which exclusively and directly depends on social behaviour, irrespective of whether the cause of the fire is deliberate or accidental (Leone et al. 2002). The main causes of wildfires in Italy, as described in the official statistics of the State Forestry Service (CFS 2007) for the most recent period (1997-2007) include arson, which caused 58.96 percent of all fires. The main human causes (indirect drivers) of forest fires can be grouped into three broad categories; namely, profit-seeking; manifestations of protest; and resentment or insensitivity toward forests. In a recent study, Lovreglio et al. (2010) have used the Delphi technique to ascertain the main causes of forest fires occurring in different study sites, including the Basilicata Region.

The annual fire regime in the Mediterranean coastal and upland study site of Matera area reflects its climatic characteristics, which directly influence forest fire ignition and propagation. In 2006-2008, 284 fires were recorded, with 2169 ha of forested land burnt and 3522 ha of non-forested land burnt (ISTAT).

Wildfires are typically concentrated in the summer season: 80 percent happen between July and September, with a peak in August. Only 1.41 percent of the fires in Basilicata in the period 2003-2008 were due to natural causes (lightning); therefore, almost all fires were human-induced, with 2.27 percent caused by accidental events; 17.20 percent related to inattention, negligence or imprudence (unpremeditated fires); 62.55 percent related to arson; and 16.58 percent of fires were due to unknown causes (Basilicata Region 2009).

As regards the unpremeditated fires, approximately 80 percent were related to human agricultural and forest management activities (such as stubble burning) or due to cigarettes and matches; while intentional fires were mainly due to pasture opening/renewal. On the basis of a recent spatial analysis of forest fire incidence in the Basilicata region, the higher risk value refers to coastal Tyrrhenian areas (Lovreglio et al. 2010) and to the Matera area (to the east of Basilicata) where agricultural activities and the climatic characteristics play an important role in fire ignition. In the area of Matera, many fires occur in summer within the coastal pine forests which are under pressure of concentrated recreational activities.

Climate change

Global scale phenomena such as climate changes dramatically influence the Mediterranean region, which is considered a model region for studying climate change effects on terrestrial ecosystems (Allard et al. 2008). Recent climate projections forecast a 20 percent decline in precipitation in the Mediterranean basin (Giorgi 2006; Rowel and Jones 2006), mainly during the summer period, accompanied by more frequent and more intense heatwaves. Mediterranean ecosystems are also likely to experience more frequent and intense, as well as longer, drought periods (Christensen et al. 2007).

The Matera study site, located in the middle of the Mediterranean basin, is significantly affected by long-term processes of ecosystem degradation. The main LEDD issues associated with climate related degradation processes are ecosystem productivity decline, abandonment of marginal areas and increasing ecosystem vulnerability (loss of biodiversity). Furthermore, the decrease in water availability combined with anthropogenic pressures represents key drivers of desertification processes.

Policies

Several policies related to agriculture and forest ecosystem management in Italy and in the Basilicata Region, are directly derived from EU directives, such as, for example, the Rural Development Plan (PSR) 2007-2013. The financial incentives for the primary sector related to these policies represent an important driver for management choices of farmers and forest owners, with direct effects on ecosystem services and socio-economic organization.

At the regional level, the Basilicata region implemented a series of policies to retain key forest functions such as conservation, protection and productivity, but also to promote and support the development of rural areas, and thus the forest sector. The effects of policies generally depend on their implementation and effectiveness, as in the case of Forest Management Plans.

The application of the Forest Management Plan is regulated by the Regional Law (L.R.) n. 42 (1998) “Regulations relating to forestry” and its modifications represented by the Deliberations of the Regional Council (D.G.R.) no. 956/2000 “Forests Cutting  Regulations” and  D.G.R. n.613, 30/04/2008 “Guide lines for the Forest Management Plans”. D.G.R. n.613/2008 introduced a contribution of up to 75 percent of the cost for the preparation and implementation of Forest Management Plans to all forest owners (both public and private owners).

Other important regional policies addressing the development and protection of rural and forest areas, are the Rural Development Programme (2007-2013), the Triennial Forestation Plan (2009-2011) and the Triennial Fire Protection Plan (2009-2011). The Rural Development Programme (2007-2013), adopted by the Basilicata Region in 2007, provides a series of measures in favour of forests. The programme offers a series of financial opportunities to support structural interventions, compensation measures and contribution to forest owners.

The Triennial Forestation Plan (2009-2011) includes important measures to prevent and mitigate forest fragmentation and degradation that supports and promotes reforestation/afforestation, forest restoration and protection. Forest fire prevention and restoration policies are represented by the Regional Law  no. 13/2005 “Regulations for the prevention of forest fires” complemented by the Triennial Fire Protection Plan (2009-2011). These policies promote actions and financial support to preserve and protect forests from fires, preserve regional wildlife and flora, promote awareness campaigns and environmental education, as well as basic and advanced training courses on fire prevention, promote studies and research on fire prevention and restore fire-damaged forests.

Among the policies with unexpected detrimental effects must be considered the already cited and discussed set-aside policy of the European Union (1988).

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note: Text source D311 section 3.2.3 {/xtypo_alert}

Agriculture

Grazing is a driver of LEDD in several ways. In Portugal, for example, the relationship between wildfires and pastoralism was studied by Catry et al. (2010), who found that shepherds used fire primarily to renovate pastures for livestock use. Thus, grazing has an influence on fire occurrence. On average, pastoral activity was found to be responsible for 20 percent of all wildfires and for 11 percent of the total area burned. Shepherds used fire mainly to burn shrublands (78 percent) and forests (18 percent) (Catry et al. 2010).

In 2005, the introduction of cows to rural areas in Portugal, the Portuguese side of the study area and to a lesser extent the Spanish part of the Study area, was mainly driven by the provision of subsidies and has led to a dramatic increase in soil erosion (Imeson et al. 2006). The subsidy does not take account of the optimum stocking density of the land, the fodder production capability of the pastures or the water balance, so overgrazing triggers land degradation processes. Another important factor is soil compaction caused by livestock trampling. The fragile soils are not able to withstand the impact of trampling by cows, where traditionally pigs, sheep and goats were raised. As a consequence, erosion rates have accelerated.

In the final report of MEDALUS I (1993), agriculture is identified as the major cause of environmental degradation in this area. The extension of agricultural lands, logging and the practice of burning land are drivers that lead to the degradation and loss of many dehesas and montados.  At present, most dehesa and montado forests are found in rural areas with low population densities, in areas of rugged relief or in hunting grounds. Within the dehesa and montado system, livestock grazing and, to a lesser degree, agricultural practices are an inherent part of the conservation of the system. So, agriculture is not a driver of LEDD when it is appropriately managed.  Farming practices have traditionally favoured the maintenance of oak and cork trees, thanks to the wise exploitation of the system. 

The identification of drivers for LEDD in the dehesa and montado systems is still under investigation. In general the main processes are identified as anthropogenic (air pollution), biotic (pathogens) and climatic factors (Gil Pelegrín et al. 2008). The economic profitability of the agro-silvo pastoral systems is usually low and could be seen as a socio-economic driver. The Mediterranean character of the climate (dry summers and somewhat cold winters), and the low fertility of the soil, make arable farming unsustainable. This is why the dehesa has arisen as the only possible form of rational, productive and sustainable land use. It does not try to maximize the output of any particular product. The dehesa and montado systems are diverse systems in which there are agro-, silvo- and pastoral activities. This is acknowledged as the ability to successfully satisfy human requirements from the Middle Ages up to the twenty-first century (Olea and Miguel-Ayanz 2006).

Forestry, wood extraction and energy demand

Wood extraction from dehesas and montados in the Baixo Guadiana is mainly used for firewood. Traditionally, the wood of the Holm oak is seen as one of the best for use in wood burning stoves, and in the study area this is still the main source of heating. The cork oak, mostly found in the montado on the Portuguese side of the study area, provides a good source of revenue as cork can be harvested approximately every 9 years.

Extractive activities (mining)

In the Baixo Guadiana intense mining activity reached its peak when the São Domingos mines were operating around the beginning of the twentieth century. The trees and shrubs of the dehesa and montado were used to produce charcoal for mining purposes (Roxo and Casimiro 2004). Now, however, this has practice has stopped and no longer has a direct influence on the forest.

However, the Iberian Pyrite Belt, which touches the north of the Baixo Guadiana area, is one of the most important volcanogenic massive sulphide ore deposits in the world (Delgado et al. 2010). Mining activity in this area extends back to the Bronze Age (Davis et al. 1999). Many mines closed during the mining crisis in the 20th century but as a result of changes in global markets, some mines have reopened and commenced commercial activity once again. Despite the current low level of mining activity, acid drainage of mines in the Guadiana Basin continues and causes environmental pollution in the area (Delgado et al. 2009).This type of environmental pollution has led to ongoing ecosystem degradation.

Tourism and recreation

For many years, tourism has been one of the main drivers of the Spanish economy. During the Franco regime, tourism was strongly promoted in many parts of the coastal zones of Spain. Coastal urbanisation quickly developed and modifications were made to the coastal margin (Baigorri 1999). In 1975 a tentative evaluation was made of the tourist areas affected by processes of desertification with the estimate at that time of 1.7 million ha being affected.

Spain received 51,748 million tourists in 2002 (WTO 2002) which makes Spain one of the top countries in the global tourist industry. The annual income from the tourist industry in 2002 was 33,809 million USD. According to a pan-European study by Jones and Hughes (1993) and data from the European Commission (1995) overall wetland losses exceeding 50 percent of original area have been reported by France, Greece, Italy and Spain.  One study cited by EEA (2001), however, suggests that three quarters of the sand dunes between Spain and Sicily have disappeared as a result of urbanisation linked to tourism development.

The WWF report, Freshwater and Tourism in the Mediterranean (De Stefano 2004), mentions that important wetlands, including Ramsar sites of international importance, are being destroyed by tourism activities. France, Greece, Italy, and Spain have already lost half of their original wetland areas. Tourism near Spain’s Doñana National Park in the province of Huelva, is competing with the park’s wetlands for already scarce resources.

A recent project (2008- 2011) to develop the area in the Baixo Guadiana, called ‘sustainable tourism in the Lower  Guadiana’, aims to promote trans-border cooperation in developing tourism in a sustainable way. The natural capital of the area has been recognised as a key asset in the sustainable development of the area. Most tourism is found in the coastal zones, especially in the Algarve.

Urbanisation

In Portugal, over 28,000 hectares of agricultural, forest and other semi-natural and natural land was developed between 2000 and 2006. Fifty percent of the land area was taken from forests and 40 percent from agricultural land (SOER 2010). It has been estimated that Spain has built more housing units than France, Britain and Germany combined during the last decade.  The amount of new housing reached 687,523 units in 2010. If the renovation of existing houses is also taken into account, the number of housing units totalled 1.1 million. In the western Andevalo area, the growth of urban areas is one of the main land use change issues. Close to the coast and near the town of Ayamonte, a new urban area named ‘Costa Esuri’ has been built, which occupies some 950 ha. Approximately 6,000 apartments have been built, along with two golf courses. This will significantly increase pressure on limited water resources. Moreover, approximately 600 ha of the total area has been constructed in a NATURA 2000 protected area.

Deforestation

In Portugal, currently the most common cause of deforestation is the destruction of shrub vegetation for cereal cultivation and pasture. Clearing of holm oak and cork oak trees (Quercus ilex and Q. suber) is strictly forbidden by law (Roxo and Casimiro 2004).

Forest fires

Forest fires are a major problem in Spain and Portugal. Although there are large variations from year to year, on average between 60,000 and 150,000 ha are burned each year in Spain. In 1994, the figure was over 400,000. Concern has been expressed over the effects of global warming on Spanish forest ecosystems, in as much as the predicted warmer, drier climate is likely to cause more fires and also the desertification of some zones of southern Spain (FAO 2011). Portugal was affected by severe forest fires and in 2003, approximately 400,000ha were burned. In 2005, some 190,000ha of forests were damaged in Spain (JRC 2007). Montiel and Herrero (2010) have shown that fire risk is higher in zones where human presence and related activities are close to forest fuels and could ignite fires; the so-called Wildland Urban Interface zones (WUI). In Spain, these zones cover approximately 2 percent of the land area and account for approximately 1,100,000ha.

In the last few decades there has been a significant increase in forest fires in both Portugal and Spain. Several socio-economic factors, including the increasing recreational use of forests and land accessibility, contribute to this trend. In Spain and Portugal, more than 95 percent of forest fires are ignited by humans, and most fires occur in the summer months when the climate is hot and dry and when tourism is at its peak (Catry et al. 2010). Wildfire risk was analysed in Portugal by Moreira et al. (2009). They found that shrublands were the most fire-prone land cover, whereas annual crops, permanent crops and agro-forestry (Montado) systems were the least fire-prone.

The Alcoutim municipality forest fire records between 1980 and 2002 show an occurrence of 10.31 fires a year with an average burnt area of 92.74 ha. (PROT Algarve annex D 2006). In recent years, in the Baixo Guadiana study area forest fires have occurred, but have mostly not affected large areas. This is due to several factors. For instance, often there is little fuel in the landscape, there are no dense forests. The forest fires that have been witnessed in recent years where accurately stopped by the fire brigades. One aspect that can be highlighted is that access to water, the Guadiana River, is nearby.

Climate change

Concern has been expressed over the effects of global warming on Spanish forest ecosystems, inasmuch as the predicted warmer, drier climate is likely to cause more fires and also the desertification of some zones in southern Spain (FAO 2011). According to meteorological records in the study area, a trend of declining precipitation can be observed between 1932 and 1996 (Do O’ and Roxo 2001).  Future climate change will act to amplify existing water stress, with important consequences for the availability and distribution of water between different land uses (ADAM 2009). Changes in climatic conditions also enhance other risks to forest resources, especially through increased tree mortality and land degradation (SIAM 2001). This is a particular issue, as the rise in temperatures will increase demand for outdoor recreation, with forests and woodland areas having the potential to provide suitable conditions and micro-climates for a range of activities (ADAM 2009). More tourism leads to a higher risk of pollution and forest fires, amongst others.

Policies

The Baixo Guadiana is part of the international Guadiana river basin, in which the river Guadiana serves as the natural border between Portugal and Spain. Unilateral management decisions and policies concerning this drainage basin clearly have an effect on both countries. The scientific monitoring and management approaches used in this area are substantially different between Spain and Portugal.  In the light of these discrepancies it is not easy to define which policies have contributed to, or alleviated LEDD. In the Baixo Guadiana, the recent emergence of new trans-boundary arrangements has acted as a stimulus for greater cross-border cooperation and represents considerable potential for enhanced collaborative activity in the future. However, many obstacles to sustainable resource management and environmental protection still remain in this particular trans-boundary context. This viewpoint is reinforced by feedback during ADAM stakeholder workshops (Mertola, Portugal 2006 and Seville, Spain 2009) which have highlighted the lack of integrated initiatives (ADAM 2009).

Policies related to forest management in the Baixo Guadiana area are derived from different departments and different levels, international, national, and regional. Some policies related to agriculture also are related to reforestation measures in order to control erosion, such as the program ‘Desarollo Rural de Andalucia 2007-2013 (PDR) (development of rural Andalucia), which was approved on 20 February 2008. The measure 216, is denominated to ‘ayudas a las inversions no productivias´ (support to non productive inversions)  (BOJA 2009). The program is supported by FEADER (Fondo Europeo Agrícola de Desarrollo Rural), created by the regulation (CE) nº 1290/2005.  In this program the establishment of vegetation and island forests are supported. The rationale behind the island forest in relation to LEDD, is that these island forest protect the cultivations from wind, reduce erosion and minimize one of the greatest problems in the world; desertification (Fernández and Aparicio 2004).

The main forest policies derive from ‘Adecuacion del Plan Forestal Andaluz, HORIZONTE 2015. After careful analysis of the forest evolution in the Autonomous Community of Andalusia, this new plan has been adopted as the planning tool for 2008-2015. The plan will provide  new directions and guidelines for decision-making in sustainable forest management, both at international level, the European Union level and at the State Administration and the Autonomous Community of Andalusia. This program will also evaluate its effects on the environment in accordance with the provisions of Law 9 / 2006 of April 28, the evaluation of the effects of certain other plans and programs related to environmental and regional development policy. The document also has adequate consideration of impact on the ´Plan with Land Planning´ (Plan con Incidencia en la Ordenación del Territorio) to be included in forest planning activities in paragraph 13 of Annex I of the Law 1 / 1994 of Planning of the Autonomous Community of Andalusia.

The most recent changes in forest landscapes over the past 20 years are related to the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) (Van Doorn 2007). Among the range of Programmes financed by the Portuguese Government and the EU under CAP, the most important related to forests is CAP Follow-up Measures; specifically EU Regulation 2080/92: forestation of agricultural land (Do´ O and Roxo 2006). Financial support from the CAP became available for Portuguese agriculture in 1985. This included revival of livestock breeding (especially sheep), and cereal cultivation. Later, afforestation programmes for less favoured areas (part of the second pillar measures of the CAP) gained importance for some areas in the Alentejo. Although forestation tends to be a positive response to LEDD, the practical application of these policies may be less straightforward. In order for areas to have been considered as agricultural land, it was a pre-condition that they received subsidy from regulation 2080. As a result, many land owners cleared their properties of vegetation, in areas where recovery was already taking place as a result of land abandonment (Do’ O and Roxo 2006) This in turn led to increasing land degradation. The practices of forestation also contribute to LEDD through clearing of existing vegetation cover, heavy soil mobilisation, compaction, inadequate planting techniques, and incorrect species with no natural regeneration and high tree densities that increases fire risk.  Another important policy in relation to land use changes is, the PAMAF Programme.

Other relevant policies in the Portuguese side of the Baixo Guadiana area include the regional planning of territory, the PROT (Plano Regional de Ordenamento do Território). In the Baixo Guadiana both the PROT of the Alentejo and the Algarve apply. Within the PROT there are several different themes that are related to forest management, amongst which is the PROT on desertification which is linked with the National Action Plan of Portugal (PANCD).

In relation to forest fire management, the recent findings of the European Project Fire Paradox (2010) show that the catastrophic forest fires in Portugal and in Spain have increased the awareness of policy-makers. However, the adoption of political measures is often an ad hoc in reaction to a situation that has already developed, and does little to mitigate further problems (Sande Silva et al. 2010).