Drivers of LEDD in forests & shrubland: Italy and Matera
Authors: Agostino Ferrara, Guiseppe Mancino, Luca SalvatiEditor's note: text source D311 section 3.2.2
Agriculture
Forests and shrublands cover about 25 percent of the Matera study site and represent the ancient remnants of much larger forests, deforested in the past for agriculture and grazing. Grazing in forest is widely used in the Mediterranean basin and it has influenced the forest ecosystem through plant adaptive strategies such as seed and fruit dispersion by animals, and seed germination. Moreover, in the study site and in the Mediterranean region in general, grazing in forests, if rationally managed, has always been considered an important part of agricultural activities and a source of income diversification for farmers.
In the last few years in the Basilicata Region, particularly in the Matera area, this practice has been irrationally and uncontrollably exercised, becoming a direct driver for forest ecosystem and shrubland degradation. Overgrazing is responsible for decreases in forest cover, reduction in productivity, biological and structural simplification, soil chemical and physical degradation, erosion, compaction, loss of organic matter, nutrients, water storage capability and of forest productivity.
Overgrazing in forests also has negative effects on forest renewal with the consequence of biodiversity reduction and root damage. The indirect effects of grazing include a deterioration of soil physical characteristics including porosity and organic matter loss, which result in root exposure and widening. Furthermore, grazing in forests results in loss of soil fertility, driving further forest degradation processes (Figure 1). The damage caused by overgrazing is also dependent on the type of livestock used (size, species, breed and management). In the Matera study site, cattle are the main forest grazers, with sheep and goats concentrated mainly in shrublands.
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Figure 1. Forest grazing in Gallipoli Cognato Forest (Basilicata Region). Source: (Author Angelo Nolè) |
In the Basilicata Region, the main tool for management and planning in forest areas are the Forest Management Plans discussed above, in which not only vegetation characteristics are qualitatively and quantitatively analysed to better define their sustainable use, but also other activities such as grazing are defined and managed. The assessment of resources availability (depending on climatic conditions) is essential to prevent land degradation and reduce loss of forest cover.
Forestry, wood extraction and energy demand
Mediterranean forests are subject to increasing demand for energy production at the local scale and also to increasing demand for other forest goods and services. Thus, forestry, wood extraction and energy demand act as direct drivers on forest ecosystem and shrubland modification and ecosystem degradation. Although forest management represents the most important instrument for the sustainable exploitation of forest resources and services, in the Mediterranean region the difficulties in accessing these resources and the declining price of forest products negatively affect the profitability of forest management. In the Basilicata region and in the Matera study site, forest management has been supported by a contribution of up to 75 percent of the cost of the preparation and implementation of Forest Management Plans for all forest owners (both public and private sector). Starting in 2004, a programme of forest management planning led to the implementation of plans aimed at the conservation and development of forest resources. The implementation of forest management plans is also crucial to prevent the overexploitation of resources under the extreme climate conditions which characterise the Matera study site.
Tourism and recreation
Forest tourism and recreation activities in Basilicata are widespread and often day-based, particularly during summer weekends. The most common type is seaside tourism in the coastal areas (Ionian and Tyrrhenian coasts). Visitor numbers are also increasing in Pollino National Park and in Vulture, Gallipoli-Cognato and Matera parks. Basilicata tourism is based primarily on domestic visits with relatively few international visitors (mainly from European countries). Most of the tourists (about 70 percent) are concentrated in the coastal area, though the Basilicata Region potentially has several areas with elevated tourism quality. The reasons for this distribution are related, on one hand, to the lack of suitable tourist infrastructure, and, on the other, to the lack of significant marketing and promotion of local areas. In the forests close to urban centres, there are picnic areas for seasonal (summer) tourism and recreation activities. These activities can cause land degradation through lighting fires, litter, heavy trampling, and destruction of flora and fauna.
Tourism demand has also led to an increase in tourist accommodation facilities in the Ionian and Tyrrhenian coasts, triggering urban sprawl and further coastal strip development, which has brought associated land use changes, natural and semi-natural habitat deterioration and fragmentation, and biodiversity loss.
Forest fires
In the Mediterranean basin forest fires are predominantly an anthropogenic phenomenon (95 percent on the average), which exclusively and directly depends on social behaviour, irrespective of whether the cause of the fire is deliberate or accidental (Leone et al. 2002). The main causes of wildfires in Italy, as described in the official statistics of the State Forestry Service (CFS 2007) for the most recent period (1997-2007) include arson, which caused 58.96 percent of all fires. The main human causes (indirect drivers) of forest fires can be grouped into three broad categories; namely, profit-seeking; manifestations of protest; and resentment or insensitivity toward forests. In a recent study, Lovreglio et al. (2010) have used the Delphi technique to ascertain the main causes of forest fires occurring in different study sites, including the Basilicata Region.
The annual fire regime in the Mediterranean coastal and upland study site of Matera area reflects its climatic characteristics, which directly influence forest fire ignition and propagation. In 2006-2008, 284 fires were recorded, with 2169 ha of forested land burnt and 3522 ha of non-forested land burnt (ISTAT).
Wildfires are typically concentrated in the summer season: 80 percent happen between July and September, with a peak in August. Only 1.41 percent of the fires in Basilicata in the period 2003-2008 were due to natural causes (lightning); therefore, almost all fires were human-induced, with 2.27 percent caused by accidental events; 17.20 percent related to inattention, negligence or imprudence (unpremeditated fires); 62.55 percent related to arson; and 16.58 percent of fires were due to unknown causes (Basilicata Region 2009).
As regards the unpremeditated fires, approximately 80 percent were related to human agricultural and forest management activities (such as stubble burning) or due to cigarettes and matches; while intentional fires were mainly due to pasture opening/renewal. On the basis of a recent spatial analysis of forest fire incidence in the Basilicata region, the higher risk value refers to coastal Tyrrhenian areas (Lovreglio et al. 2010) and to the Matera area (to the east of Basilicata) where agricultural activities and the climatic characteristics play an important role in fire ignition. In the area of Matera, many fires occur in summer within the coastal pine forests which are under pressure of concentrated recreational activities.
Climate change
Global scale phenomena such as climate changes dramatically influence the Mediterranean region, which is considered a model region for studying climate change effects on terrestrial ecosystems (Allard et al. 2008). Recent climate projections forecast a 20 percent decline in precipitation in the Mediterranean basin (Giorgi 2006; Rowel and Jones 2006), mainly during the summer period, accompanied by more frequent and more intense heatwaves. Mediterranean ecosystems are also likely to experience more frequent and intense, as well as longer, drought periods (Christensen et al. 2007).
The Matera study site, located in the middle of the Mediterranean basin, is significantly affected by long-term processes of ecosystem degradation. The main LEDD issues associated with climate related degradation processes are ecosystem productivity decline, abandonment of marginal areas and increasing ecosystem vulnerability (loss of biodiversity). Furthermore, the decrease in water availability combined with anthropogenic pressures represents key drivers of desertification processes.
Policies
Several policies related to agriculture and forest ecosystem management in Italy and in the Basilicata Region, are directly derived from EU directives, such as, for example, the Rural Development Plan (PSR) 2007-2013. The financial incentives for the primary sector related to these policies represent an important driver for management choices of farmers and forest owners, with direct effects on ecosystem services and socio-economic organization.
At the regional level, the Basilicata region implemented a series of policies to retain key forest functions such as conservation, protection and productivity, but also to promote and support the development of rural areas, and thus the forest sector. The effects of policies generally depend on their implementation and effectiveness, as in the case of Forest Management Plans.
The application of the Forest Management Plan is regulated by the Regional Law (L.R.) n. 42 (1998) “Regulations relating to forestry” and its modifications represented by the Deliberations of the Regional Council (D.G.R.) no. 956/2000 “Forests Cutting Regulations” and D.G.R. n.613, 30/04/2008 “Guide lines for the Forest Management Plans”. D.G.R. n.613/2008 introduced a contribution of up to 75 percent of the cost for the preparation and implementation of Forest Management Plans to all forest owners (both public and private owners).
Other important regional policies addressing the development and protection of rural and forest areas, are the Rural Development Programme (2007-2013), the Triennial Forestation Plan (2009-2011) and the Triennial Fire Protection Plan (2009-2011). The Rural Development Programme (2007-2013), adopted by the Basilicata Region in 2007, provides a series of measures in favour of forests. The programme offers a series of financial opportunities to support structural interventions, compensation measures and contribution to forest owners.
The Triennial Forestation Plan (2009-2011) includes important measures to prevent and mitigate forest fragmentation and degradation that supports and promotes reforestation/afforestation, forest restoration and protection. Forest fire prevention and restoration policies are represented by the Regional Law no. 13/2005 “Regulations for the prevention of forest fires” complemented by the Triennial Fire Protection Plan (2009-2011). These policies promote actions and financial support to preserve and protect forests from fires, preserve regional wildlife and flora, promote awareness campaigns and environmental education, as well as basic and advanced training courses on fire prevention, promote studies and research on fire prevention and restore fire-damaged forests.
Among the policies with unexpected detrimental effects must be considered the already cited and discussed set-aside policy of the European Union (1988).