Characteristics

Characteristics of cropland: general

2012-04-27T07:00:24+00:00

Authors: Constantinos Kosmas, Katerina Kounalaki, Mina Karamesouti

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note: Text extracted from D111-2.1{/xtypo_alert}

It is estimated that about 11 percent (1.5 billion hectares (ha)) of the globe’s land surface (13.4 billion ha) is used for crop production (Bruinsma 2003). This area represents slightly over a third of the land estimated to be, to some degree, suitable for crop production. The remaining roughly 2.7 billion ha of land with crop production potential suggests that there may be a possibility for further expansion of agricultural land. However, the majority of this land is marginal, degraded land or land under adverse climatic conditions for crop production. Global natural resources, especially soils and water, are already under great pressure, highly degraded in many areas, and restoration is of high priority (Lal 2010). Loss of ecosystem resilience, due to increasing demands from a growing world population, would create severe impacts on ecosystem services.

Based on analyses of remote sensing data at the end of last millennium (Chandrashekhar et al. 2009), the total global rain-fed cropland area is estimated at 1.13 Bha (Figure 1). The first two classes in Figure 1 (corn-soybean-wheat dominant, and wheat-cotton-barley dominant) are predominantly rain-fed cropland, covering about 50 percent of the area. As can be seen, rain-fed croplands and grasslands, rain-fed croplands and shrublands, and rain-fed croplands and woodlands account for between 34 and 40 percent of the total area covered by rain-fed crops, and between 12 and 25 percent of the classes of grassland dominant with rain-fed croplands, shrublands dominant with rain-fed croplands, and woodlands dominant with rain-fed croplands (Chandrashekhar et al. 2009). Of the 1.13 Bha of rain-fed croplands in the world, Asia dominates with 29 percent of the total, followed by Europe (20 percent), North America (17 percent), Africa (17 percent), South America (14 percent), and Australia (3 percent).

The geographical distribution of total rain-fed cropland is closely correlated with the geographical distribution of human populations (Chandrashekhar et al. 2009). The highest percentages of total rain-fed croplands are mainly located in countries with high populations. The United States, Russia, China, Brazil and India account for the highest percentages of rain-fed cropland areas in the world. China and India, with about 2.6 billion people, mostly depend on irrigated agriculture to produce enough food to feed their populations (Thenkabail et al. 2008). In contrast, North America and Europe, with a combined population of about 1.3 billion depend on rain-fed agriculture.

Figure 1. Global map of rain-fed cropland areas derived using a fusion of 1-km SPOT VGT, 10-km NOAA AVHRR, and numerous secondary data. Sourcfige: (Chandrashekhar et al. 2009).

Worldwide, the area of irrigated land has increased from 97 Mha in 1950 to 275 Mha in 2000. Globally, the land area needed to feed one person decreased from about 0.48 ha in 1950 to 0.25 ha in 2000 (Ausubel 2001) and it is expected to decrease in the future. One of the major questions concerning the future of irrigation is whether there will be sufficient freshwater to satisfy the growing needs of agricultural and non-agricultural users. Agriculture already accounts for about 70 percent of the freshwater withdrawals in the world and is usually seen as the main factor behind the increasing global scarcity of freshwater. Climate change associated with drought and extreme weather events is expected to affect crop yields, especially in the semi-arid climatic zone, by reducing water availability for agriculture and increasing energy prices (Zilberman et al. 2008; Collier et al. 2008; Levine 2009). In addition, genetic modification of plant varieties has led to improvements in performance for growing under low water availability, which in turn is advancing food security (Falkenmark et al. 2009; Rockström 2003; Finkel 2009).

The land area under crops has increased by a factor of 5.3 between 1700 and 2000 (Figure 2), while the area of cropland per capita has progressively declined (Brown 2004; Funk and Brown 2009). Globally, on average only 0.26 ha of cropland per capita (including irrigated and rain-fed) is available for food production. The total per capita area of cropland available for food production has decreased due to population growth, soil degradation, and salinisation (Thomas and Middleton 1993; Worldwatch Institute 2001; Preiser 2005). Europe and North America accounts for 16 percent of the global area of cropland but has only 9 percent of the total population of the world. Asia accounts only 0.17 ha of cropland per capita, which is lower than the 0.26 ha global average. North America has the highest area of cropland per capita (0.74 ha) followed by Europe (0.36 ha), South America (0.31 ha), and Africa (0.26 ha).

Figure 2. Estimates of land area under cropland. Source: (Adapted from FAO 2008; Richards et al. 1990).

World demand for food is expected to double between 2005 and 2050 (Borlaug 2007), due to population increase and changes in dietary preferences (Lal 2010). During the 20th century, it is estimated that the global population increased by a factor 3.8; urban population increased by a factor 12.8; water use increased by a factor 9; irrigated cropland area increased by a factor 6.8; fertilizer use increased by a factor 342; and the production of organic chemicals increased by a factor 1000 (Ponting 2007). Global cereal yield increased from about 1500 kg ha^–1 in 1961 to about 3000 kg ha^–1 in 2005, while the harvested area decreased from 0.21 ha per person in 1961 to 0.10 ha per person in 2005 (Funk and Brown 2009). One third of the increase in cereal production worldwide during the 1970s and 1980s has been attributed to increased fertilizer consumption (Figure 3). Crop production has also increased during that period due to increasing cropping intensity, as well as to expansion of the arable area (Bruinsma 2003).

Areas prone to soil degradation are estimated at 1965 Mha globally, comprising 1094 Mha prone to water erosion (Lal 2010), 549 Mha to degradation by wind erosion, 239 Mha to degradation by chemical degradation, and 83 Mha to physical degradation (Oldeman 1994). Secondary salinisation of irrigated land, affecting about 73 Mha worldwide, has adverse impacts on crop production. Two thirds of the land vulnerable to degradation is in Africa and Asia, including the Middle East. These are also the world’s two most populous regions, in which two thirds of the expected increase of 3 billion people will live.

Figure 3. Total world fertilizer consumption. Source: (Adapted from IFDC 2004; Tilman et al. 2001; Ponting 2007).

The main trends in cropland in Europe are towards conversion of arable land and permanent crops to pasture, set-aside and fallow land (EEA, 2005). There are three major aspects to consider: (1) the conversion of agricultural land to urban land; (2) conversion and rotation from pasture to arable land and vice versa within agriculture; (3) withdrawal of farming with or without forest creation and conversion of forested and natural land to agriculture. Across Europe and Central Asia, the farming sector is affected by growing polarization between intensive commercial agriculture and low-income, less productive farming systems that are increasingly being abandoned (EEA 2007). However, agriculture still includes diverse systems, ranging from large, highly intensive and specialised commercial holdings to subsistence farms mainly using traditional practices. Consequently, impacts on the environment vary in scale and intensity and may be positive or negative.

Characteristics of cropland: Crete and Messara Valley

2012-04-30T08:00:44+00:00

Authors: Constantinos Kosmas, Katerina Kounalaki, Mina Karamesouti

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 30 Apr 2012: Text source D111-2.2. The first section "Greece climate, soils and agriculture" will be deleted. It is expected that this same information will be contained in D131. {/xtypo_alert}

Greece climate, soils agriculture

Greece is located between the latitudes 34° 48' 02'', 41° 44' 58'' Northern latitudes and 19° 22' 41'', 29° 38' 27'' Eastern longitudes. It includes over 2000 islands, 75 of which are inhabited, and covers a total area of 131,191 km². The maximum length from north (Rodopi) to south (Crete) is 727 km, while the maximum width is 570 km. The majority of the Greek land area is mountainous with steep slopes. Approximately 49 percent of the surface area has slopes greater than 10 percent, and only 36 percent comprises lowlands with slope less than 5 percent. Areas at elevation greater than 800m occupy 28.6 percent of the country. The highest elevation is Mount Olympus at 2,917 m.

Crete is the largest island in Greece and is located in the south of the country (Figure 1). The island of Crete covers an area of 8313.3 km². The length is 250 km while the widest part of the island is 56 km. The narrowest part of the island is 12 km, and is located in the eastern part of the island close to Ierapetra city. Crete is a rugged, mountainous island with high variation in altitude within relatively short distances. Due to its predominantly steep terrain and adverse climatic and bio-climatic conditions, the island faces significant soil erosion problems. In total, 79.5 percent of the surface area is comprised of slopes greater than 12 percent and only 6.9 percent of the land comprises lowlands with slope less than 6 percent.

Figure 1. Location of the study site, Crete. Source: (Author C. Kosmas)

Mountain soils in Greece are extremely eroded due to the steepness of slopes, are shallow and poor (Leptosols, FAO classification system) (Fink et al. 1998), and useless for agricultural activity. On the uplands, the steep slopes, combined with the removal of natural vegetation (fire, cultivation, overgrazing), have caused soil erosion and the prevailing soils are characterized as Cambisols, Luvisols, and Regosols. Due to their low fertility and productivity it is questionable whether these lands should be used as cropland (Kosmas et al. 1998). The lowland soils are more productive. They can be subdivided into three main groups. The first group includes soils formed after reclaiming former lakes such as Gianitsa, Tenagi Filipon, Kopais and Karla. These are the most fertile soils, characterized by high productivity (mainly Mollisols and Fluvisols). The second group includes cultivated soils of moderate to high fertility, temporarily flooded and characterized by a shallow groundwater table (hydromorphic counterparts of Fluvisols, Cambisols, Luvisols, Vertisols, etc.). The third group includes lowland soils with low organic matter content and with moderate to poor fertility. Therefore, soil fertility is mostly determined by texture, the type of clay and soil depth. About 150,000 hectares of land in the lowlands contains amounts of soluble salts to such a degree that they need reclamation before any use. Based on soil, climate and topography characteristics, land of high potential quality represents 19 percent of the total land surface (CORINE 1990), 18 percent is of moderate quality and 57 percent of low potential quality. Much of the low quality land is used for traditional, low capital intensity farming systems which are important in maintaining the characteristic Mediterranean landscapes.

The climate of Greece belongs to the Mediterranean type, according to which most rains fall in the cold period October-March whereas the summer months July-August are almost without precipitation. The amount of rainfall ranges from 780 to 1,280 mm per year in the western part of Greece, this amount being reduced by about half in the eastern part, which ranges from 380 to 640 mm per year. As far as temperature is concerned great variation exists. Greece lies between the isotherms of 14.5°C and 19.5°C. During the cold period, temperature increases with decreasing latitude, whereas in the warm period and especially between May and August temperature increases from the coast to the mainland and particularly the plains. In winter, the lowest temperatures occur in northern Greece reaching occasionally -20°C whereas in the southern parts and Aegean islands, temperature scarcely falls below 0°C. In the summer, temperatures greater than 40oC may occur in the lowlands of the Greek mainland, contrary to the islands and coastal areas, which rarely reach 40°C due to the northern winds locally named “etesians”, and local winds. With regard to sunshine duration, certain Greek regions have some of the highest number of hours of sunshine in southern Europe. The western coast of Peloponnesus together with the Ionian coast and the Aegean islands have more than 3,000 hours of sunshine per year. The remaining coasts have about 2,500 hours and inland this figure is approximately 2,300 hours.

Agriculture plays a major role in the Greek economy. Together with forestry and fishery, its contribution to the country's economy is about 18.5 percent. Greek agriculture has rapidly modernized since the late 1950s when self-sufficiency in wheat production was attained. Since then, soil amelioration and mechanization, application of fertilizers, pest-disease control, introduction of improved varieties, and expansion of the total irrigated area have led to a dramatic increase in agricultural output (Sala et al. 1998).

The country's food situation had already substantially improved before Greece’s entrance into the European Union in 1981. After that, agricultural development focused on maximization of fodder and cash crop production which resulted in intensive arable cropping on all fertile, irrigable lands. Further mechanization and expansion of the irrigated area to 1 million hectares were realized soon after the country became a full member of the European Union (Boyatzoglou 1983).

Greece adopted a system of farming cooperatives as early as 1915 to streamline farming efforts. These cooperatives have been supported by successive governments. After the 1980s, the cooperatives were greatly enhanced and received a large percentage of agricultural loans. Furthermore, the European Union has allocated to Greece a number of subsidies to bolster its agricultural sector, but it continues to perform poorly. To expand the market for Greek food exports, the Ministry of Agriculture established a private company (Hellagro SA) to assist Greek companies in selling their products through the internet. Private stockholders will hold the majority share in Hellagro, and financing will come from e-commerce, commission, investment opportunities and joint ventures (Boyatzoglou 1983).

In recent decades, Greek agriculture has been characterised by an increasing diversification of fruit crops for export. Furthermore, the area of land under arable production has decreased due to high a degree of degradation, or as a result of changes in land use. As Figure 2 shows, the land available for production per head of population has changed from 0.34 in 1968 to 0.23 (ha/person) in 2008 (World Bank 2011).

Figure 2. Change of arable land area per person with time in Greece. Source: (World Bank 2011)

Greece had managed to achieve a fast-growing economy after the implementation of stabilization policies in recent years, at least, prior to the global financial crisis of 2008–2009. Greece has a predominately service economy which (including tourism), accounts for over 70 percent of GDP. Greece realigned its economy as part of its EU membership, which began in 1981 (Petmezas 2005). Although agriculture accounts for 20 percent of the work force, its role in the economy is declining. In 2000 agriculture accounted for 9 percent of GDP, compared with 25 percent in the 1950s. Agriculture has been further affected by the current economic conditions of Greece and the global recession.

Cropland in Greece

Cropland in Greece covers 3,896,344 ha or 30 percent of the Greek territory. Arable land (including temporary crops, temporary meadows for mowing or for pasture and land temporarily fallow) is the most extensive, covering 2,221,900 ha (Greek Agricultural Statistical Service 2001). Tree crops (except vines) cover 998,213 ha; vineyards 132,083 ha, and others (vegetables) 116,348 ha. Land corresponding to fallow covers an area of 427,800 ha.

As Figure 3 shows, cropland is mainly found in the plains of Thessaly, Macedonia, Thrace, Peloponnesus, and Crete. The main arable crops are corn, wheat, barley, sugar beets, cotton, and tobacco, while the main crop trees are apples, pears, peaches, apricots, oranges, olives, and vines. A wide range of seasonal and out of season vegetables are also cultivated, such as tomatoes, melons, watermelons, cucumbers, potatoes and strawberries. While agriculture is not a thriving economic sector, Greece is still a major EU producer of cotton and tobacco. Greek olives—many of which are turned into olive oil—are the country's most renowned export crop. Grapes, melons, tomatoes, peaches and oranges are also popular EU exports. Wine is a widely exported product and is expected to increase in terms of production.

Figure 3. Distribution of various types of cropland in Greece. Source: (Author C. Kosmas based on CORINE 2000 data)

As shown in Figure 4 below, the total area of cropland in Greece has declined in past decades due to low land productivity and land abandonment. The area under arable crops has decreased from about 2,700,000 ha in 1961 to 2,180,000 ha in 2003. Arable crops have been replaced by tree crops such as olives and the area covered by trees has therefore increased from 510,000 ha in 1961 to 1,000,000 ha in 2003. Vineyards show a slight decrease in area over time, while the area under vegetable cultivation remains relatively stable.

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Figure 4. Change in cropland area in Greece over time. Source: (Greek Agricultural Statistical Service 2003)

Olive groves in Greece occupy an area of about 717,400 hectares with about 140 million trees cultivated by 686,000 families. Olive oil production in Greece has increased from circa 186,000 tonnes in 1971 to 330,000 tonnes in 1995 and to 451,000 tonnes today. Olive oil production in Greece represents 23 percent of total European Union production.

Olive groves in Greece are usually intensively cultivated. Soils are usually ploughed once in mid-spring and in several cases are treated once or twice a year with herbicides. Another management practice which is related to organic olive oil production is no tillage and no pesticides. Fertilizers are usually applied once during winter or early spring. If water is available, olives are irrigated 3 to 5 times during the dry period, applying the water usually by drip irrigation. Some of the management practices applied in olive groves which have significantly improved production include:

Pruning for rejuvenation or fruit production at the time of harvesting which significantly affects production.
Fertilizer input using mainly nitrogen or phosphate fertilizers, increasing plant growth and production.
Weed control by mechanical cultivation or herbicides applied once per year, early in spring for conserving soil water and facilitating harvesting.
Complementary irrigation applied in areas with low rainfall or in years with limited rain, particularly during spring, which contributes to greater production.
Dacus or other pest and disease control, which is of great importance for both yield and quality. Dacus control is applied to all olive groves by the Regional services of the Ministry of Agriculture in collaboration with local Co-operative unions.

Irrigated land in Greece today covers about 37.9 percent of the national cropland area or 1,476,714 ha. The area of irrigated land has doubled compared to the decade 1960-1970 (Figure 5). The over-exploitation of ground water for irrigation of summer crops has had adverse consequences on soils due to intrusion of sea water and salinisation. Additionally, increasing tourism in the last 40 years has exerted a significant impact on the environment and in particular on land-use patterns and the allocation of water resources. In order to meet the high water requirements and to protect the intensively cultivated plain areas, multiple use water reservoirs (irrigation and consumption) have been constructed or are under construction in Greece. Fourteen large water dams have been constructed along the main rivers in which the water stored is mainly used for electricity production and irrigation. The total water storage capacity of these dams is 9,551 million m³. Ground water recharge is another management practice to improve ground water quality and to avoid soil salinisation. For example, on the Argolis plain, which is facing severe problems of intrusion of brackish water and soil salinisation, recharge of the aquifers is achieved by supplying good quality spring water through wells during the winter period (Sala et al. 1998).

Figure 5. Change in percentage of irrigated land over time in Greece. Source: (Greek Agricultural Statistical Service 2009)

Cropland in Crete

Cropland in Crete covers an area of 313,376.9 ha (including fallow land) or 37.7 percent of the total land area. The Prefecture of Heraklion has the greatest area of cropland (Table 1). The most extensive cropland in Heraklion is located in the Messara valley. Olive and vine plantations are the main trees, covering a large part of the lowlands and hilly areas, but also parts of the uplands. The most significant expansion of olive groves occurred during the last forty years after maquis and shrub vegetation were eliminated (Figure 6). Vine plantations declined significantly due to destruction by phylloxera. New plantations, with increased resistance to phylloxera, have appeared in the area in the last decade. Cereals drastically declined in Crete after 1950 and were replaced mainly by olive trees or vines.

Table 1: Area of cropland and fallow land in Crete by category and geographic region, 2006

Geographic region	Cropland area (in ha)
Geographic region	Total (including fallow land)	Arable land	Garden, raisins	Vines and compact plantations	Crop trees	Fallow land
Crete	313376.9	30017.2	8549.5	25522.8	190082.2	59205.2
Heraklion	145140.8	15198.5	3749.2	19418.8	83770.9	23002.3
Lassithi	55421.6	4911.5	2049.2	2330.3	30628.3	15502.3
Rethimno	51848.5	6204.2	1045.1	1856.1	28605.4	14137.7
Chania	60966.0	3703.0	1706.0	1917.6	47077.6	6561.8

Source: Greek Agricultural Statistical Service 2006.

Figure 6. Change in cropland area (ha x 10³) in Crete over time. Source: (Greek Agricultural Statistical Service 2006)

Olive groves are found across Crete, covering 193,724 ha or 23.5 percent of the total area. The island of Crete, and especially the Messara valley, faces significant problems of water resource over-exploitation due to the expansion of irrigated cropland, such as olive groves. Although the Valley receives on average about 600mm of rainfall per year it is estimated that about 65 percent is lost to evapotranspiration, 10 percent as runoff to sea and only 25 percent goes to recharging the groundwater (Vardavas et al. 1996). An extensive network of pumping stations has been installed since 1984 in which rain-fed olive groves have been converted to irrigated olives. The consequences are an increase in crop production accompanied by a dramatic drop of up to 20m in the groundwater level in some places, and intrusion of brackish water in the aquifers.

Characteristics of cropland: Italy and Alento

2012-04-30T12:06:24+00:00

Authors: Giovanni Quaranta, Rosanna Salvia

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 30 Apr 2012: Text source D111-2.3. To be edited again to avoid overlap with D131.{/xtypo_alert}

Italy: agriculture, farming and agricultural policy

Italy, with a surface area of 301,277 km², is characterised by a variety of climatic and environmental conditions. A Mediterranean clitmate prevails, with cold wet winters and hot dry summers. Rainfall varies from less than 600 mm/year to more than 1200 mm/year, rising to over 2000-3000 mm/year in some areas. The lowlands, flat and valley areas, cover 6,976,373 ha (23.2 percent of the territory); the mountain areas occupy 10,611,957 ha (35.25 percent of the country), while the hill areas cover about 12,542,779 ha (41.55 percent of the territory). Due to the range of rainfall, hydrological, altimetric and climatic regimes (from Mediterranean to continental and Alpine), Italy presents a wide diversity of ecosystems, landscapes and agriculture.

Agriculture’s role in the Italian economy is small and decreasing, but is more important in some regions. Farming contributes just over 2.6 percent of GDP, but nearly 5 percent of employment (1.3 million labour units) although there are marked regional differences, with contributions rising in the South to over 3.4 percent of GDP and nearly 8.6 percent of employment (INEA 2010). According to the national statistical service, ISTAT, in 2007 the total area utilised for agriculture (UAA) was about 12.7 million hectares, of which 55 percent was taken up by arable crops, 27 percent by permanent meadows and pasture and 18 percent by permanent crops. 1,002,414 hectares are managed organically and 49,654 units are involved.

A closer look at the utilisation of the agricultural area shows a predominance of field and tree crops, which involve two third of farms. Permanent meadows and grazing are much less widespread (21 percent of farms) and linked above all to raising livestock. Field crops are particularly associated with the size of farm, and, in contrast, tree crops tend to be more frequent on farms of a smaller size. Horticultural crops, olive groves and grapes account for nearly 45 percent of total agricultural value, compared to 11 percent for cereals and almost 35 percent for livestock (INEA 2010). Horticultural and permanent crop production dominates in the South, with livestock and cereals more prominent in the North. With over 75 percent of mountainous land and a high population density, pressure on land is intense. Agriculture, as the major land use activity, accounted for 42 percent of land use in 2007, although the reduction of area farmed is the highest reduction among OECD countries.

According to the latest survey of farm structures and output (SPA) carried out in 2007, there are at present 1,679,000 farms in Italy. In the last Census, farms with less than 20 hectares of UAA, 95 percent of all Italian farms, occupied only 44 percent of used agricultural surface area (ISTAT 2000). Farms with over 20 hectares of UAA, just 5 percent of farms, occupied more than 55 percent of total Italian UAA. Despite the increase experienced in the last decades, the average size of Italian farms is still much lower than the European average, currently 7.6 hectares vs 16 hectares in the EU-25.

The disparity between farm size and UAA is also reflected in income: 67 percent of farms have a turnover of less than 10,000 euro, 32 percent have a turn-over of between 10,000 and 500,000 euro and only 0.5 percent have a turn-over of over 500,000 euro. Small farms, which numerically speaking is the majority of farms, produce just 8.5 percent of total production and 7.3 percent of the Added Value. Small farms represent 33.5 percent of total work share, considerably lower than the 60.7 percent of medium-large sized farms. In 2009 the Added Value (AV) to base prices in the primary sector was around 25 billion euro. An analysis of figures from 1980 to 2009 shows a steady increase in AV up until 2000, followed by annual fluctuations from 2000-2009.

Areas under irrigation accounted for 17 percent of farmland by 2007, mostly concentrated in drier Southern regions which account for over 60 percent of the irrigated area, 30 percent of farms and about 50 percent of total agricultural production. About 50 percent of the value of agricultural production and 60 percent of farm exports are derived from irrigated farming. Agriculture’s share in total water use is about 60 percent, reflecting the prominent role of irrigation, with two-thirds of water drawn from surface water. The last two censuses (1990-2000) show an increase in depopulation and abandonment of farming shown by a constant decline in population numbers, in UAA, and in the number of farms. The total population has fallen by 1 percent, with highs of 2 percent in the most disadvantaged areas, whilst national population has increased by 0.4 percent. Depopulation of rural areas has led to an increasingly ageing farming community: in 2007 only 6.9 percent of farms were run by farmers under 40, over 44 percent were run by farmers over 65; young farmers represent only 16 percent of the total, that is one out of six farmers is considered a young farmer (ISTAT Study of Farm Structure and Production 2005 and 2007).

According to estimates made in the report La povertà in agricoltura. Una mappa del rischio e del disagio rurale in Italia (Poverty in Agriculture. A map of areas at risk and in poverty in rural Italy) by Eurispes (Eurispes 2007), almost one million famers are in poverty. The report found that around 10 percent of farming families are below the poverty line; that is below the minimum level of income deemed necessary for an adequate standard of living which in Italy is 7,500 euro annually. In comparison with other sectors, farmers are the most at risk of poverty: three percent of families in which the head of the family is employed in industry are under the poverty line, less than two percent of families employed in service industries and less than five percent of families employed in other sectors, the latter also including a large number of retired people, are under the poverty line.

Higher rates of poverty amongst farming families are confirmed by the large percentage of farming families that have an annual income of between 7,500 and 12,500 euro, above the poverty line but still considered poor, especially where family size consists of more than one member. In 2000, 26 percent of farming families earned between 7,500 and 12,500 euro compared to just six percent in the industrial sector, five percent in service industries and eight percent in other sectors.

Agricultural policies in Italy mostly derive from EU policies. Financial support for the primary sector is made up of two aggregates: firstly farming subsidies, both from national authorities (state and regional organizations) and the EU, and secondly tax breaks for farmers (Finuola 2010). Public sector farming subsidies remain strong: from 2000-2009 Italian farmers received around 15.5 billion euro a year on average. The importance of subsidies can be seen though its influence on macro variables in different sectors: more than half of Added Value and almost a third of Agricultural Forestry Production is covered by public sector finance; the last decade, particularly in the middle years, saw AV subsides of 56 percent and production subsidies accounted for 33 percent of added value. CAP subsidies make up the majority of all subsidies, 43 percent of total subsidies were from CAP in the middle half of the decade, or 64.8 percent if we only take transfer income into consideration.

Cropland in the Alento study site

The Alento study site is located in the Campania region. It has a surface area of around 55,000 hectares (Figure 1). The Utilized Agricultural Area (UAA) accounts for the 34 percent of the total area. Most of the area is hilly and mountainous, while only a small proportion is flat land. The inherent difficulties of farming on sloping land have led to the construction of terraces and embankments in steep areas. In fact, over the centuries, man has brought about significant changes in large areas of the landscape with the aim of creating land suitable for farming. Agricultural land was adapted by varying the profile of the terrain to gain sub horizontal surfaces and managing the flow of rainfall runoff.

Figure 1. The Alento study site. Source: (Prepared by MEDES Foundation)

The structural characteristics of farming in Alento are summarized in Table 1. The figures show predominantly extensive farming, especially when compared to neighbouring areas. Only 60 percent of the ‘Total Agricultural Area’ (TAA) is used productively and therefore considered ‘Utilized Agricultural Area’ (UAA). A study of the relationship between TAA/UAA in the area shows areas where UAA represents under 50 percent of the total surface area yet in some areas UAA reaches 87 percent of total surface area.

Table 1. Structure of Agricultural Sector

Alento	UAA/TAA	% Irrigated UAA/total UAA	Average Farm Size
	60%	29%	2.40

Source: (ISTAT 2001)

Only 29 percent of UAA is irrigated and this land is exclusively reserved for high value crops. Figures for irrigated UAA vary considerably within the study area, for example, only five percent of farming land in use is irrigated in San Mauro Cilento compared to 50 percent in Salento, where there is an intensification of farming on areas on flat land. The data on farm size reveals an agricultural sector in crisis. The average farm size in the study areas is just 2.40 hectares.

Cropland within the study area can be divided into two principal uses; annual crops and permanent crops. As Table 2 shows, the study area is highly specialized in farming permanent crops; in fact 54 percent of UAA is destined for permanent crops whilst annual crops make up only 12 percent. The remaining part of UAA is used as permanent pasture land.

Table 2. Share of cropland on UAA

Alento	Percentage of UAA under annual crops	Percentage of UAA under permanent crops
	12%	54%

Source: (ISTAT 2001)

In some areas of the Alento, including Stella Cilento and Salento, over 80 percent of UAA is under permanent crops and in San Mauro Cilento, Omignano and Orria the figure is higher still at over 70 percent. The lowest figures are found in Cannalonga where 15 percent of UAA is under permanent crops and just five percent of UAA is under annual crops, revealing an area of vey low agricultural activity.

A detailed analysis of the distribution of land use and of crop specialization reveals that cereals dominate annual crop production with 25 percent of UAA under cereal crops (Table 3 below). Vegetable crops make up 17 percent of UAA though peak at 40 percent in Sessa Cilento and Castelnuovo Cilento. Land under permanent crops is almost entirely used for olive plantations (79 percent) whilst 13 percent, the areas of flat irrigated land, is used for cultivating fruit, mainly peaches.

Table 3. Land Use

Alento	Percentage of total surface area of land under:
	Annual cereal crops	Annual vegetable crops	Annual forage in rotation	Permanent grapevines	Permanent olive groves	Permanent citrus fruit	Permanent fruit cultivation
	25%	17%	28%	7%	79%	1%	13%

Source: (ISTAT 2001)

Table 4 shows another characteristic of the area’s agricultural structure; a high presence of land fragmentation concerning all crops. Although aided somewhat by cooperatives and associations, this distinctive trait of Alento’s agriculture reduces profitability in the agriculture sector and complicates efforts to carry out the stream-lining needed to ensure that this sector can continue to compete on the international stage.

Table 4. Average farm sizes according to crop production

Alento	Average size of farm cultivating
	Cereal crops	Vegetable crops	Olive groves	Fruit
	0.96	0.35	1.16	0.54

Source: (ISTAT 2001)

Considering the added value from agriculture to base prices, the agricultural industry represents around eight percent of the total income produced (ISTAT 2005), on average 3.1 percent in Campania, 4.3 percent in southern Italy and 2.5 percent in Italy. The key to this area’s apparent success in the agricultural sector, at a time when the sector as a whole is suffering severe reductions, is mainly due to a lack of alternatives, rather than the strength of local products alone.

The social importance of cropland in the study area can be seen in Table 5 below, which shows the rates of agricultural labour per farm and per hectare. The figures show that the agricultural sector provides relatively intensive employment. The crops which require the most workers are: vegetable crops, fruit crops and olive production. The data on hired labour, however, highlights the dominance of family workers on farms. Indeed most famers only resort to hiring workers during their busiest times for help with harvesting and pruning.

Table 5. Use of Farm Labour

Alento	No. of days worked per farm	No. of days worked per hectare of cropland	% No. of days worked by hired labour/total work
	81	51	21%

Source: (ISTAT 2001)

As shown in the land use figures in Table 3, olive trees are by far the dominant crop in the Alento area, which has a long and important history of olive production. The plantation techniques used today for olive farming are still much the same as in the past, such as the pruning of branches to create an open vase tree shape and wide irregular spacing of trees. The trees in this area are large and centuries old. The type of harvesting techniques employed depends upon the size of the trees and the steepness of the terrain. Olive cultivation is very much an important part of the local economy thanks to the presence of numerous local businesses that specialize in the production of various olive-based products. Currently there are three main types of olive cultivation in the area:

Small-scale olive cultivation with relatively low yields found mostly in hilly areas where harvesting is most problematic. These trees have a long history and were once an important source of income for farmers and workers during the quietest months of the farming calendar. Many of the olive plantations in the area today are the remnants of those old olive groves whose produce was destined solely for the local farming community. At that time olives and olive-oil were an important part of people’s diet as they were their only source of fat. Though there have been many technological advances in the cultivation and harvesting of olive plants over the last fifty years, the vast majority of olive plantations herein described have remained untouched as the slow growth of the trees, their age and the modes of production employed, prohibit the implementation of modern farming techniques.
In an attempt to make olive production economically viable, the plantations found on fertile land with layouts conducive to good yields have abandoned herbaceous cultivation and added new plants in an attempt to become specialized olive producers. These types of plantations form the main body of olive production in the area despite the fact that they are mostly located on hilly land and have very high production costs due to high labour costs, especially for pruning and harvesting. Not only do these plantations make an important contribution to local olive production but they also have a role in preserving the traditional landscape of the region and protect slope stability on the hillsides.
Finally, there is a third type of olive cultivation that concerns the newer plantations that have been designed using modern technical criteria. These plantations are generally very small and receive public funding (rural-development policies have been put into place and have proved that olive production can be economically viable on flat land and even on the fertile soil of gentle hill slopes). Nevertheless, the fact remains that the only use for many inaccessible and impracticable areas of land is the planting of olives whereas the most suitable land for olive trees is almost always used for cash crops that create more income. Therefore, only high-production and high-quality olive plantations whose produce can fetch higher at retail are able to survive in the market and be competitive.

In the lower lands, in recent years, there has been a marked increase in the cultivation of peaches, especially early varieties which thrive in mild climates. Herbaceous crops are also on the increase, thanks to a favourable climate and irrigation. Horticultural crops, in particular, are spreading both in open fields and in unheated greenhouses.

Characteristics of cropland: China and Zhang Jiachong

2012-04-30T14:00:05+00:00

Author: Honghu Liu

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 30 Apr 2012: Text source D111-2.4. To be edited again to avoid overlap with D131.{/xtypo_alert}

According to the first survey of land resources (Zhao et al. 2010), in 1996 the total area of cropland in China was 130 Mha but by 2007 the area had decreased to less than 122 Mha; a decrease of 8 Mha (Table 1).

Table 1. Change in area of cropland in China between 1998 and 2007

Year	1998	1999	2000	2001	2002	2003	2004	2005	2006	2007
Quantity of cropland (Mha)	129.30	128.86	128.24	127.62	125.97	123.39	122.44	122.08	121.80	121.74

Source: (Zhao Yuling et al. 2010)

Currently, the quality of cropland in China is very poor (Wu, 2009) and degradation is severe. The area of soil loss in China is 3.67 Mkm², which is a third of the land area and as a result, there is a severe lack of land resources in China. In 2001, the per capita area of arable land was about 0.10 hectares, which is 40% of the average per capita arable land area in the world (0.250 ha). Eleven provinces have a per capita area of arable land of more than 0.13 ha. These provinces are mainly distributed in the northeast and west of China. Seven provincial administrative units have a per capita area of arable land of less than 0.07 ha. These provinces include: three municipalities directly under the control of Central Government (Beijing, Tianjing and Shanghai); Hunan; Zhejiang; Fujiang; and Guangdong in southern China. Sixty six percent of cropland in China is located on mountains, hills and plateaus while only 34% of cropland is distributed on plains and in basins. According to statistical data in 2003, the area of sloping farmland in the Yangtze River basin is 9 Mha, which is 42.5% of the sloping farmland in the whole of China. Of this sloping farmland, 7.67 Mha is in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, which is 88.3% of the Yangtze River basin (Hu 2009). In the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, the total land area is 0.92 MKm², which is 9.54% of the total land area in the whole of China. Cropland accounts for 19.56 MHa, which is 20.6% of the total cropland in China (Qi 2009).

The source region of the Yangtze River

The data on land use change in this section of the report is derived from remote sensing images. The remote sensing images used are landsat-5 TM image in 1986 and landsat-7 ETM image in 2000, which is in summer and autumn (August and October) (Pan 2005).

Between 1986 and 2000, the main characteristics of land use change in the source region of the Yangtze River are a rapid increase in the area of land under cultivation and a sharp decrease in the area of wetlands, forests and glaciers, which regulate the ecosystem in high cold regions. Over the 15 year period, the area of urban construction land and bare earth rose by between 184.2% and 151.3%, which represents two trends: (1) human activity has strongly influenced the land cover; (2) both abandoned land and grassland degradation have caused an increase in secondary barren land. Table 2 below shows that in 1986, grassland covered the largest area, followed by unused land, wetland, water, forest land, cropland and construction land. In 2000, land use cover had changed and the order of individual land use was; grassland, unused land, wetland, water, forest land and construction land. The categories with maximum spatial variation of individual land use change were grassland and water bodies. These results indicate that in the past 15 years, grassland degeneration and degradation have become a serious problem, and the use of grassland has declined. In the meantime, large areas of glacier have disappeared and lakes have shrunk in area, which has resulted in changes in the spatial position of large areas of grassland and water.

Table 2. Changes in individual land use categories between 1986 and 2000.

Type	Area(km²)		Yearly change ratio (%)	Roll-in (km²)	Roll-out (km²)	Variation (km²)
Type	1986	2000	Yearly change ratio (%)	Roll-in (km²)	Roll-out (km²)	Variation (km²)
Construction land	2.2	4.8	8.6	2.6	0	2.6
Cropland	3.2	4.6	3.1	1.5	0.1	1.4
Grassland	78469.6	75818.1	-0.2	4395.1	7046.6	2651.5
Forestland	23.7	10.8	-3.9	0	12.8	12.8
Wetland	7220.4	4138.0	-3.1	33.9	3116.3	3082.1
Water	6934.2	6606.0	-0.34	777.6	1105.7	328.2
Unused land	28766.6	34837.5	1.5	7835.5	1764.6	6070.8
Total	121419.9	121419.9	0	13046.2	13046.2	12149.8

Source: (Pan 2005)

The upper reaches of the Yangtze River

The data used for this report is mainly sourced from the resource and environment database covering the whole of China, which includes: the Landsat TM/ETM remote sensing images from 1980, 1990 and 2000; land use maps; administrative maps; 1:250000 DEM; and the statistical data of the related economic development (Wu et al. 2008). The 1:100000 land use database in 1980, 1990 and 2000 has been constructed using RS and GIS technology. As can be seen from Table 3 below, in the past 20 years cropland in the upper reaches of the Yangtze river has shown a significant decrease, followed by an increase which has been caused by the development of small towns, township enterprises, and the ratio and spatial distribution of agricultural land changed by household contract management.

Secondly, forest land and grassland shows a different trend to cropland. Forest land has decreased by 0.14×104 km² whereas grassland has increased by 0.17×104 km². Forest land is the category of land use showing the largest decrease in area and grassland shows the maximum increase. The sharp reduction in forest land is caused by long-term extensive deforestation. The degradation of forest ecosystems is also one of the main reasons for the increase in grasslands. Third, water area shows changes up to 3.42%, but this is due to the fact that some water storage facilities were built and glacier and snow cover changes with seasonal change. Fourth, construction land shows the maximum change and fastest increase, with an increase ratio of 96.29%, which is caused by rapid economic development in the 1990s. Fifth, although the change in the unused land category is small, at only 0.18%, this category has also experienced a significant increase and subsequent decrease as a result of increasing animal husbandry and cultivation. Unused land decreased by 0.8×104 km² in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in the 1980s. Vegetation deterioration results in increasing soil loss and desertification of land. As a result, land use capability locally has decreased.

Table 3. Basic land use situation of upper reaches of Yangtze River

Landuse type	Area (10⁴ km²)			Yearly change of area (10⁴ km²)			Yearly change ratio of area (%)
Landuse type	1980	1990	2000	1980-1990	1990-2000	1980-2000	1980-1990	1990-2000	1980-2000
Cropland	21.99	21.60	21.91	-0.39	0.3	-0.08	-1.77	1.43	-0.36
Forestland	33.77	33.95	33.63	0.18	-0.32	-1.14	0.53	-0.94	-0.41
Grassland	35.47	36.89	35.64	1.42	-1.25	0.17	4.00	-3.39	0.48
Water	1.46	1.20	1.41	-0.26	0.21	-0.05	-17.81	17.50	-3.42
Construction land	0.42	0.27	0.53	-0.15	0.26	0.11	-35.71	96.29	26.19
Unused land	5.54	4.74	5.53	-0.80	0.79	-0.01	-14.44	16.67	-0.18

Source: (Wu et al. 2008)

The relative change in the rates of land use in nine provinces of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River has been calculated. The results showed an obvious spatial difference of land use across these provinces. Among them, change in the area of cropland in Qihai province was the highest. Its relative change rate is 36.18. The next is 6.32 in Gansu province. Guizhou province is the lowest, with only 0.26. The change of forest in Chongqin city is the highest, in which the relative change ratio is 6.88. The next is Sichuan and Xizang province, which are 2.59 and 1.26, respectively. The lowest is 0.05 in Yunan province. The change in grassland in Chongqin is the highest. Its relative change rate is 16.48. Next are Yunan and Sichuan provinces, with 3.56 and 2.78 respectively. Lowest in terms of change are Shanxi and Qihai provinces, with 0.44 and 0.07 respectively. The change of water in Yunan province is the highest and its relative change rate is 7.42 while the change in other provinces is lower than the mean change in the water bodies in the upper reaches of Yangtze River. This means that in provinces other than Yunan province, there is no spatial difference in the area of land covered by water. The change in area of construction land in Hubei province is the highest, with a relative change ratio of 9.54. Next are Chongqin and Sichuan Provinces. The former three provinces belong to a well developed area. The other provinces such as Gansu and Qinhai province belong to a developing area. The change in the area of unused land in Qihai province is the lowest, at 23.94. Next is Chongqin, which is 7.59. The lowest is Hubei and Guzhou province, at only 0.06.

In the upper reach of the Yangtze River, four sample areas were measured. The first (105°33'45″ - 37'30″, 33°35'00″- 37'30″) is located in western Chengxian, which belongs to western Qinling region of southeast Gansu province. The second (106°48'45″-52'30″, 30°40'00″-42'30″) is located in the north-eastern Gangan, which belongs to east Sichuan province, the west of the middle of Huaying mountain. The third (108°26'15″-108°30'00″, 30°52'30″-30°55'00″) is located in north-eastern Wanzhou, which belongs to the middle of the Three Gorges in the east of the Sichuan basin, paralleled ridge-valley of east Sichuan. The fourth is located in the middle of Yuanmong County, which belongs to the western part of the middle Yunnan plateau, including the Three Gorges Dam Area, the low hill and middle mountains (Ren et al. 2007).

Based on field surveys, data on land use in the four sample areas of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River was obtained. Using a weighted average method, land use in four sample areas was computed (Table 4 below). The results indicated that in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, agricultural land (cropland, forest land and ponds) is the dominant land use. The total area of the four sample areas is 111 km². Agricultural land covers 88.01 km², which is 79.29% of the whole sample area. Next is unused land, which is 17.1 km² or 15.41% of the whole sample area. Construction land is the lowest, covering 5.89 km² or 5.31% of the whole sample area. Cropland covers the largest area within the agricultural land category, with 63.87 km² or 72.57% of agricultural land; 57.54% of the sample area. Next is forest land, which covers 18.32 km² or 20.82% of agricultural land; 16.5 % of the sample area.

Due to the difference in terms of the type of environment in the four sample areas, the land use in these areas is different (Table 4 below). The Longnan mountain area, the hill region of middle Sichuan and the ridge-valley of east Sichuan have very similar land uses. Agricultural land in these three sample areas is the dominant land use type, which is 92% of the whole sample area. The land use in the Arid-hot river valley of Jinshajiang is special. The dominant land use is unused land, which is 53.15% of the whole sample area. Next is agricultural land, which is 12.5 km² or 43.22% of the whole sample area. In the four sample areas, the ratio of construction land in the Longnan mountain area is the highest, at 8.65% of the whole sample area. Next is the hill region of the middle Sichuan, which is 5.97% of the area. The others have almost the same ratio of construction land, which is about 3%. Unused land in the hill region of the middle Sichuan and ridge-valley of east Sichuan is 2.21% and 4.06% respectively, while there is no unused land in the Longnan mountain area. In the hill region of the middle Sichuan area, cropland is the dominant land use covering 25.09 km² or 90.71% of the sample area. In the Longnan mountain area and the ridge-valley of east Sichuan, the area covered by cropland is very similar at about 55% of the sample area. The area of forest land in the Longnan mountain area is relatively larger, covering 9.82 km² or 36.60% of the whole sample area. The area of forest land in the ridge-valley of east Sichuan is 4.50 km², which is 16.3% of the whole sample area. The ratio of cropland in the arid-hot river valley of Jinshajiang is the largest within the category of agricultural land, accounting for 63.20% of the agricultural land. Next is forest land, which covers 30.56% of the sample area. In the four sample areas, a large proportion of cropland is sloping land. The minimum proportion appears in the hill region of the middle Sichuan, which is up to 32.21%. The maximum is in the Longnan mountain area, which achieves 53.71%. The other two areas are 39.24% and 48.72% respectively.

Table 4. Statistics for land use in the upper Yangtze River regions

Land use type	Longnan mountain area		Hill region of the middle Sichuan		Ridge-valley of east Sichuan		Arid-hot river valley of Jinshajiang		Mean
Land use type	Area/km²	Ratio/ %	Area/km²	Ratio/ %	Area/km²	Ratio/ %	Area/km²	Ratio/ %	Area/km²	Ratio/ %
Cropland	14.69	54.75	25.08	90.71	16.2	58.7	7.9	27.32	63.87	57.54
Forest land	9.82	36.6	0.18	0.65	4.5	16.3	3.82	13.21	18.32	16.5
Pond	0	0	0.1	0.36	0.07	0.25	0.01	0.03	0.18	0.16
Construction land	2.32	8.65	1.65	5.79	0.87	3.15	1.05	3.63	5.89	5.31
Unused land	0	0	0.07	0.25	1.12	4.06	14.75	51	15.94	14.36
River	0	0	0.54	1.95	0	0	0.62	2.14	1.16	1.05
Total	26.83	100	27.65	100	27.6	100	28.92	100	111	100

Source: (Ren et al., 2007)

The middle reach of the Yangtze River

The data for this area was sourced from statistics yearbooks of Xianning city (1995-2007) and data on land use change from the Land and Resources Bureau of Xianning city (Xia et al. 2009). The character of land use change is shown in Table 5 and discussed below.

Table 5. Variation of land use in Xianning in 1996 to 2006

Land use type	Cropland	Vegetable field	Forest	Grassland	Other agricultural land	Construction land	Roads	Water conservancy
1996-2000	-0.1830	-0.1492	-0.0257	0.0000	0.1613	0.7476	3.8582	0.1335
2000-2005	-1.3472	-0.1596	0.7208	0.0000	-0.1554	0.6788	0.9141	-0.0003
1996-2006	-0.6754	-0.2558	0.3209	0.0000	0.0265	0.8281	3.4309	0.0596

Source: (Xia et al. 2009)

Change in transportation (road) land: The change in the area of road land is the largest at 3.4309. The next is construction land, which is 0.8281. Another is land for building water conservancy facilities;
Change in agricultural land: Change in cropland shows a decline. Change in forest land is next to cropland, and shows that area of land covered by land changes increasingly
Generally, the change of road land is very strong. The next is residential area, land for industrial and mining use. Another is cropland.

The Yangtze River Delta

The land area in the Yangtze River delta is 844.1×10⁴ ha. The area of arable land per capita is 0.048 ha, which is less than that of the whole country and is one fifth of the world average (Peng and Gao 2004). Based on statistics yearbooks and data from detailed land surveys, the ratio of cropland is the largest land use. Second to this island used for water storage. According to statistics between 1980 and 1995, 24.7×10⁴ ha of cropland was lost through soil and water loss, which represents 5.6% of total soil loss in China. The average rate of decline in cropland is up to 0.55%, which is double the mean value between 1980 and 1995. The maximum soil loss ratio per year is 1.47%, which occurred in 1993. The rate of erosion in cropland is more than 0.2 ha/km²yr-¹, which is 6.7 times higher than the average rate of erosion (0.03 ha/km²yr-¹ in the corresponding period. The ratio of construction land is up to 14.8%, which is far greater than the average level countrywide. The cultivation index of cropland rises 38.5%, which is close to four times as much as the average national level. The change of land use structure has the obvious spatial difference. In the 1990s the average decrease rate of cropland per year in the different towns or cities has differs 10 times for each other. The towns and cities in which the decrease rate per year is more than 2% are mainly distributed around Tailu lake. In particular in the Su, Xi and Chang districts, the decrease in cropland per year is 5.64%, 4.57% and 4.06%.

Characteristics of cropland: Spain and Canyoles River Basin

2012-05-01T07:37:35+00:00

Author: Artemio Cerda

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 30 Apr 2012: Text source D111-2.5. To be edited again to avoid overlap with D131.{/xtypo_alert}

Characteristics of Cropland in Spain

Spain produces twelve per cent of total European cropland production. Fruits, vegetables, olive oil, wine and cereals are the main products of Spanish agriculture. Fifty-two percent of Spanish farms are smaller than 5 ha; only five percent of farms are larger than 100 ha. Most farmers are aged over 55 years (55 percent). Spanish agricultural land covers 26,000 ha (the second largest area in Europe after France). Rainfed agriculture is the most widespread system, although the area under irrigated agriculture is increasing rapidly. Agro-chemicals are particularly intensively used on irrigated land, especially in the Southeastern region. Ploughing is the traditional and most commonly used management technique; however, the use of herbicides is now increasing. On irrigated land, the management technique is mainly to use herbicides and pesticides.

Characteristics of Cropland in the Júcar River Basin

The Júcar River Basin covers more than 4 million ha and comprises 5 provinces of Spain (Figure 1). This study area is representative of the LEDD processes that take place in the North of the Mediterranean basin. The research developed by the Soil Erosion and Degradation Research Group (SEDER) from the University of Valencia is focussed on the Júcar River Basin, and on a smaller watershed; the Canyoles River watershed, which was selected to study the main LEDD processes in more detail (Figure 1). The Canyoles River watershed covers 62,000 ha and shows a gradient from east to west, from the more economically active land near the coast towards more depopulated country inland.

The Júcar River Basin is located in the East of the Iberian Peninsula (Table 1) and drains an area of 4,287,020 ha. Urban water use is 118,64 hm³ / year for 1,030,979 inhabitants and the irrigated surface is 187,855 ha, consuming 1,394 hm³ / year. The territory of the Júcar river Basin (Ordenance 650/1987, 8th of May) includes all watersheds that drain into the Mediterranean Sea between the rivers Segura and Cenia. Included in this area are the provinces of Albacete, Alicante, Castellón, Cuenca, Tarragona, Teruel, and Valencia and its municipalities.

Table 1. Geographical position of the Júcar and Canyoles Rivers.

	X/Y	X minimum	X maximum	Y minimum	Y maximum
1	JRB	542000,19	798198,44	4222337,50	4517812,00
1	CRB	667050,00	716850,00	4292350,00	4324350,00
2	JRB	2°31’14.47’’	0°31’56.04’’	38°08’50.29’’	40°45’23.46’’
2	CRB	1°04’38.58’’	0°29’40.43’’	38°45’48.29’’	39°02’26.41’’

JBR: Júcar River Basin CRB: Canyoles River Basin 1: ED50, Zone 30 2: WGS1984, Zone 30

Figure 1. Location of the study area of the Canyoles River Basin within the Júcar River watershed. Source: (González Peñaloza and Cerdà 2011)

The Canyoles River Basin is located in the south of Valencia province, in an area of 62,826 hectares and includes 24 municipalities (Figure 2). The Canyoles River Basin does not cover all of those municipalities entirely, as some of them only contribute a few m² to the watershed. The climate of the study site is characterised by a typical Mediterranean contrasted climate with dry and hot summers and wet and mild winters, although the winters inland are cold due to the effect of altitude. The study area of the Canyoles River comprises a watershed that increases from 100 to 1,000 m in altitude.

Figure 2. Municipalities of the Canyoles River Basin. Source: (González Peñaloza and Cerdà 2011)

The Júcar River Basin has a Mediterranean climate, with warm, dry – hot summers and wet – warm winters. The climate is the result of the presence for most of the year of the Azores anticyclone on the Iberian Peninsula. This weather pattern has an exception; in October and November there appears a meteorological phenomenon, called a "cold drop" which results in high rainfall intensities and volumes. The upper basin area has a more continental climate, with average annual rainfall between 400 and 900 mm which falls mainly in spring and autumn, and an average air temperature between 10 and 12°C. However, the coast has a temperate dry Mediterranean climate, with average air temperature of 17°C, high humidity (60%), and average annual precipitations between 400 and 800 mm, with maximum monthly in spring and autumn (Alicante).

The summer is characterized by a drought of three to five months duration, which makes irrigation necessary in order to achieve the highest productivity. Irrigation is also widespread due to high evapotranspiration rates. Evapotranspiration rates are higher near the coast due to the higher temperatures.

The study area is located in the south of the Iberian System and the Betic System. Both are characterised by rugged terrain and steep slopes. This is why most of the Júcar basin shows rolling and gently undulating landforms, and also steep slopes and rugged terrain. Flat surfaces cover the bottom of the valleys and in the upper part of the mountains, where flat surfaces can be found (Table 2). The Canyoles River Basin shows a greater relief (see Table 3) due to the fact that the river Canyoles flows in the border between the Iberian System and the Betic System. The fault developed in this contact contributes the steep slopes and incised valleys.

Table 2. Regional landforms and associated area

Landform	Area (hectares)
Flat	1674938.33
Undulating	894169.21
Gently undulating	11251500.21
Rolling	520005.70
Moderately steep	68785.13
Steep	618.18
Very steep	0.00

Source: (González Peñaloza and Cerdà 2011)

Table 3. Slope map of the Canyoles River Basin

Landform	Area (hectares)
Flat	9876.92
Undulating	7071.11
Gently undulating	11926.21
Rolling	19941.38
Moderately steep	11273.97
Steep	2416.26
Very steep	10.98

Source: (González Peñaloza and Cerdà 2011)

The parent material of local soils is mainly limestone, although some marls, Keuper clays and quaternary sedimentary material can also be found (Table 4). The Karst type landscape is widespread, and is very important for understanding the geomorphology and hydrology of the study area, as groundwater flow and cave and pipe systems are widespread. Three main geomorphologic units are found: mountains ranges; plateau; and coastal plain. The Canyoles River watershed is characterised by a north and south range that contribute to a long W-E valley flowing from inland in the Iberian Peninsula, to the Mediterranean Sea.

The Mountain range in the north of the Júcar River Basin is known as the Iberian System, comprised of Mesozoic material, which has been folded and deformed by the Alpine orogeny. The highest peak in this range is Pañarroya (2019 metres above sea level). The Iberian System is located in the north of the Canyoles valley and plays an important role in the water resources cycle in the Júcar River Basin, because the range acts as a barrier for sea fronts, forcing clouds carrying moist air to rise to colder upper layers of the atmosphere. Once the air is lifted and cooled, it causes the largest rainfall located near the sea.

Table 4. Geology of Júcar River Basin

Lithology	Era	Period	Area (hectares)
Other	-	-	50427.53
Sandstones, conglomerates, clays, limestones and evaporites	Cenozoic	Neogene	1004206.94
Sandstone, shale and limestone	Paleozoic	Silurian	2682.35
Detrital limestone, calcarenite, marl, clay and limestone	Cenozoic	Paleogene	81060.19
Limestone, dolomite and marl. Sandstones and conglomerates	Mesozoic	Jurassic	772170.01
Conglomerates, sandstones, clays and limestone. Evaporites	Cenozoic	Cretaceous-Paleogene	104842.46
Conglomerate, sandstone, limestone, gypsum and clay versicolor	Mesozoic	Permian-Triassic	330809.17
Conglomerates, sandstones, shales and limestones. Coal	Paleozoic	Carboniferous	2011.53
Quartzite, slate, sandstone and limestone	Paleozoic	Ordovician	3321.13
Dolomite, limestone and marl. Sandstone	Mesozoic	Cretaceous	1153960.57
Gravels, conglomerates, sands and silts	Cenozoic	Quaternary	772554.84
Volcanics and volcaniclastic rocks	Cenozoic	Neogene - Quaternary	416.96

Source: (González Peñaloza and Cerdà 2011)

The coastal plain is an alluvial plain, over 400 km long and 40 km widest its widest section. This coastal plan is delimited by the Iberian System in the North West, the continental plateau on the west and the Betic System in the south. There is also an area of flat land called the Mancha area. With an average height of 650m, it is located in the western part of the Júcar River Basin.

The soils of the Júcar River watershed are classified mainly as Calcic cambisols due to the extended limestone in the area (Table 5). The soils of the study area have been affected by millennia of grazing, ploughing and burning. This is why most of the soil shows shallow depths and a poor soil structure. The Canyoles River watershed is characterised by a north and south range that contribute to a long W-E valley flowing from inland in the Iberian Peninsula to the Mediterranean Sea.

The parent material also contributes to hydrological resources based on aquifers and springs which supply water for irrigation and urban use. The river system is characterised by ephemeral rivers that flow during the rainy season, but during the summer period are dry. This is due to the Mediterranean climatic conditions and the parent material, which contributes to a karst system of springs and dry rivers. Moreover, the hydrological system is now completely controlled by human activity, with rivers flowing in summer for irrigation and without flow in winter due to the dam flow control on the Jucar River system, which supplies the cities and coastal zone with drinking, irrigation and industrial water.

Table 5. Area covered by the main soil types (ha)

Soils	Area (Hectares)
Others	21950.38
Calcaric lithosol	3045.90
Calcic cambisol	3424179.53
Calcic luvisol	40445.48
Calcic xerosol	234980.26
Dystric planosol	853.26
Eutric cambisol	46391.04
Eutric fluvisol	268192.90
Gleyic cambisol	185177.61
Gleyic solonchak	13834.55
Gypsic xerosol	7874.87
Humic cambisol	24601.17

Source: (González Peñaloza and Cerdà 2011)

The vegetation is dominated by crops (olive, almond, fruit trees, cereals, vegetables, vineyards and citrus) and a maquia and garrigue scrubland-type vegetation mixed with Aleppo pine. The oak forest was removed by human activities (grazing, fires, ploughing and timber extraction) and oaks are now found in few sites. Fauna is adapted to the presence of humans, and domestic animals are the most widespread.

Croplands are mostly rainfed in the upper part of the basin, although during the last decade irrigation is being introduced on some farms to support wheat and mainly maize production. The use of drip irrigation is also increasing, particularly for vines. In the lower part of the valley, the irrigation system was developed millennia ago by means of flooding, however, during the last two decades an increase in drip irrigation has almost removed flooding irrigation from most farms.

Characteristics of cropland: Western Andévalo

2012-05-01T08:43:09+00:00

Authors: Michiel Curfs, Anton Imeson

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 10Sep12: Source D111-2.6{/xtypo_alert}

Huelva is the most south-westerly province of Andalucia, Spain. It borders Portugal in the west and the province of Seville in the East. To the north lies the Extremadura, and to the south is the Atlantic Ocean. Huelva is one of the poorest provinces of Spain, with historically one of the highest unemployment rates. The capital, Huelva, is one of the oldest industrial towns in Spain. Most inhabitants of the province work in the tourist industry or the services sector. In the past, the main forms of employment were found in mining and agriculture.

The traditional cultivation of crops in Huelva province centred mainly on cereals, olives, vineyards and non-irrigated oranges. Near the coastal towns of Isla Cristina and Ayamonte, fig trees used to be cultivated. Over time, agriculture in the province has re-orientated towards new market demands which have resulted in new types of cultivation. In the 1960s, experimental cultivation of strawberries began near the city of Huelva. After the successful introduction of strawberries, production expanded to cover a maximum area of roughly 11000 ha but contracted to approximately 6500 ha in 2009 (EA MARM 2009). This type of agriculture relies on high levels of technological input and intensive production methods. All of the strawberry production area in the province is irrigated and plastics are used, either as ground cover or as greenhouses. In recent years, other similarly high intensity crops have been introduced, including raspberries, blueberries and oranges.

Traditional agriculture in the Western Andévalo is predominantly based on the use of the Dehesa. With the launch of official plans called “regadíos del Andévalo” (the irrigation of the Andevalo), intensive and irrigation-based technological agriculture is gaining ground in the region. Activities associated with the food processing industry are increasing significantly and include processing of Iberian Pork and horticultural products such as strawberries and oranges. The different types of cultivation in the Western Andévalo are shown in Figure 1 below.

Figure 1. The different types of cultivation in Western Andévalo. Source: (SIGPAC, created by author M. Curfs 2011)

The character of agriculture in western Andévalo can be divided into two main units; the old and traditional way of farming; and the new, highly mechanized and irrigated way of farming. The traditional way of farming occurs mostly on small farms. Here land is set aside for fallow, and the crops consist often of pastures and cereals for animal fodder. In general, these farms have low levels of production, a low rate of irrigation, and are often directly dependent on official support and subsidies (Marquez 2002).

The new way of farming consists in general of much larger farms. These farms can be described as intensive agriculture, highly mechanised and irrigated. During harvest periods there is a demand for temporary labour. The outputs of these farms are mainly aimed at the international market. Historically, the Andevalo area was characterised by small farms but this has started to change with the appearance of large commercial citrus groves (Marquez et al. 2002). Citrus production in the Western Andevalo is currently the main agricultural process impacting the environmental, socio-economic and cultural aspects of this region.

Spain has long been Western Europe's leading producer, and the world's foremost exporter, of oranges and mandarins. In the early 1960s, the production of these commodities averaged 1.8 million tonnes a year, and by the 1980s the annual yield averaged about 3 million tonnes. Grapefruit, lemons and limes were also grown in quantity but Spain was second to Italy among West European producers of these fruits. Spain's citrus groves, all under irrigation, were concentrated in Mediterranean coastal provinces, the Levante, primarily in a narrow coastal strip 500 kilometres in length extending from the province of Castellon to the province of Almeria. Some citrus fruit production also was found in Andalusia (Solsten and Meditz 1988). The latest data released by the Ministry of Environment, Rural and Marine Affairs (MARM) shows that Spain's total production of citrus fruit in 2008 was 6,383,882 tonnes (Arenas et al. 2011). In relation to orange production, the data from FAO shows that Spain holds the 6th position in the world and produced 2.62Mt of oranges in 2009.

The occupancy of citrus orchards in Andalusia has increased in recent years, from approximately 47,000 hectares in 2000 to 83,333 hectares in 2008 according to the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (CAP 2009). The Andalusian provinces with the largest areas of citrus are Seville with 28.234ha; and Huelva with 19,043 ha (Arenas et al. 2011). In Huelva province, 48.6 percent of the plantations are less than ten years old. This is evidenced by the estimations of an article from 1986, where it was measured that citrus plantations at that time occupied 3,223 ha in Huelva province. Since 1986, the area under citrus production has increased some 16,000 ha and is still expanding as more areas are converted into citrus orchards.

From 1990 to 2006, approximately 35 percent of the Western Andévalo area has been converted into orange plantations. The speed with which the orange trees grow, and the speed of expansion, can be interpreted as intensification within extensification of agricultural practices. In 2003, the Andalusian government (Junta de Andalucia) approved an irrigation plan, the "Regadío del Andévalo" (irrigation of Andévalo). Rural landscapes have been selected to be developed into economically active plantations. Ten thousand hectares of marginal agricultural land will be irrigated in the Western Andévalo region, in Huelva province. The water will be delivered from the Andévalo dam, which is situated on the Chança river; a main tributary river in the lower Guadiana drainage area.

The landscape in Western Andévalo, prior to citrus conversion can be divided into two main divisions:

(agro)-silvopastoral with low tree density (1-40 trees/ha). The trees in this division consist predominantly of holm oak, with pasture and mattoral undergrowth.
Eucalyptus stands and Pine forests.

The geomorphology of the Western Andevalo can be described, as sloping land; a dissected low to medium level undulating to rolling landscape. The main soils in the area are: Leptosol; (Eutric) Regosol; and (Eutric) Cambisol. The soils in general are shallow, low in nutrients and organic matter and formed on schists, shales and greywacks. On orange plantations, there is no appreciable soil formation other than anthropogenic soil, as it is completely (apart from parent material) created through human activity (Curfs 2009).

In the Western Andévalo almost all precipitation (an average of 500 mm/year) falls between November and March and is less than the rate of evapotranspiration (approx 900 mm/year), leading to an approximate aridity index of 0.55. The majority of water used for plantations is obtained from wells and by collecting surface runoff in man-made reservoirs, which alter the natural drainage patterns. The type of agriculture, coupled with tree density and the rate of growth, place heavy demands on already scarce water. Bare soil in between the trees has little refuge from the intensity of the sun, leading to high evaporation rates which results in the uneconomic use of water.