-- Asterousia SES

General description of Asterousia SES

2012-09-07T06:30:32+00:00

Authors:	Helen Briassoulis, Costas Kosmas, Thanasis Kizos, Minas Metaxakis, Mina Karamesouti, Katarina Kounalaki
Editors:	Alexandros Kandelapas, Vassilis Koutsoukos, Jane Brandt

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 4Mar13. Source D231-4.3. {/xtypo_alert}

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Location of Asteroussia Mountains study site of Crete. Source: elaborated by authors from Googlearth}{/tip}

Location

The Asteroussia study site consists of the Asteroussia Mountains located in southern Crete, bordered to the north by the Messara valley and to the south by the Libyan Sea, covering an area of 38,428.8 ha.

Climate

At lower elevations the Asteroussia Mts receive annual rainfall ranging between 500-750 mm (approximately 30% of the area), while higher mountainous areas receive up to 1250mm (around 5% of the area). The majority of the area (53%) receives rainfall ranging from 750-1000 mm.

The area has average air temperature ranging between 15-18°C, slightly higher in the lower western and southern part (around 21°C) and lower (12-15°C) in the upper parts. Annual ETo is estimated in 1481 mm.

Geology, topography soils and hydrology

Geologically, the Asteroussia Mts consist mainly of limestone (38.5%) and flysch (54.2%).

Topographically, they are characterised by steep slopes, very steep cliffs and steep channels transporting overland rain water. The highest peak, Kofinas, rises to 1231 m. About 22% of the area has elevation ranging from 0-200 m and about 36% has elevation of 200-400 m. Elevations above 800 m cover only around 5% of the area. Slopes are generally 35-60%, covering about half of the Asteroussia Mts, while 22% of the area has slopes greater than 60% and 21% of the area has slopes of 25-35%. The Asteroussia Mts are covered by composite landforms and level land (44% of the area), sloping land (26%) and steep land (30%).

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Spatial distribution of soil depth classes in the Asteroussia Mts. Source: LEDDRA project}{/tip}

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Hydrological network crossing the Asteroussia Mts. Source: elaborated by authors from
Googlearth}{/tip}

The major soil orders in the area are Leptosols (almost 79% of the area) and Cambisols (almost 21%). Soil is predominantly fine textured (84%) and to a lesser degree medium textured (16%). Soils are highly degraded, with the dominant soil depth class being 15-30 cm (70% of the area) with few patches of deeper soils (class 30-60 cm). Very shallow soils are found especially in the south-facing slopes of the souther part of the mountains. Asteroussia soils have high amounts of rock fragments: 57% of the area falls in the 40-60% rock fragment content class and 43% in the 15-40% class. Soils are very well drained, mainly by small ephemeral channels carrying surface water runoff. Existing channels have high densities due to the impermeability of parent materials.

The Anapodaris River crosses the eastern part of Asteroussia Mts. It is the longest river of Crete with a total amount of flowing water estimated to 40 million cubic meters.

Ecosystems and land use

The area is a dry land ecosystem (almost 92%), with few cropland areas (approximately 8%) for olive and cereals production and greenhouses. Βiomass production is restrained by water deficiency. 72% of the area is a NATURA 2000 site as habitat of Gypaetus barbatus.

The most important land cover types are natural grasslands, sclerophylous vegetation, transitional woodland-shrub, and sparsely vegetated areas.

Dominant land use is grazing (60% of the area, 94% private and 6% state owned). However, due to the lack of a cadastre, results in conflicts. Forest areas are limited in Asteroussia (around 2%).

Population, employment and education

The population of the Asteroussia has decreased steadily over the last 60 years, despite the overall population increase of the Crete and the former Herakleion Prefecture. Population density has decreased from 23.2 inhabitants per km² in 1961 to 17,7 inhabitants in 2001. Population pyramids are cone shaped, with low birth rates and many people in the 55+ age groups, particularly women. Ease of access to the city of Heraklion, has added to depopulation, as many choose to live in the city and visit the area regularly. The total dependency ratio stood at 66% in 1991 and at 70% in 2001, much higher than the average of the former Heraklion prefecture (48%).

Although in decline, the primary sector remains the dominant activity with employment in the services sector increasing very modestly. Employment in the agricultural sector is 35.1% despite a sharp decline of 21% since 1991. Other sectors are less important: 7% employment in small scale trade and services, 2% in hotels and restaurants, 4% in scientific services, 4% in manufacture, 3% in wholesale, retail trade and repairs. Unemployment has doubled since 1991.

Educational level is generally low: most inhabitants have received primary education (44%) or no schooling at all (25%).

Administration and infrastructure

Administratively, the study site is part of the former prefecture of Heraklion, now the Herakleion regional unit, of the region of Crete. The Regional administration is seated in city of Heraklion. The area includes 14 municipal districts, forming part of 4 municipalities (Faistos, Gortyna, Archanes-Asteroussia, Minoa Pediados)

Six kindergartens, 10 primary schools and 1 high school operate in the area but not any lyceums (Table 4.17). The area is served by two rural clinics, but residents tend to travel to Heraklion for health purposes (2 hospitals).

Particular LEDD issues in Asteroussia

Natural vegetation in the area is threatened by overgrazing and wild fires, ignited deliberately or accidentally. These occurrences in combination with the steep slopes, render soil erosion a major issue of land degradation and desertification in the Asteroussia Mts. Several parts are severely (32%) or very severely eroded (4%). Slightly eroded areas cover 17% of the area and moderately eroded soils 47%.

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Spatial distribution of degree of soil erosion classes described during the
execution of the soil survey in the Asteroussia Mts. Source: LEDDRA project}{/tip}

Environmental and socio-economic impacts of erosion include loss of fertile topsoil, decrease in water storage capacity, loss in organic matter content, loss in biodiversity, decrease in plant production, exposure of large amounts of rock fragments on the soil surface, land desertification, lower farm income and flooding in the lowland accompanied with infrastructure damages.

Under these extreme conditions of land degradation, plant production is reduced drastically leading to land desertification of the area. The southern part of the area has a higher degree of desertification and almost all of the rest of the area is characterized as critical to desertification.

Responses to LEDD are primarily legal/institutional and advanced through national policies, with a very low degree of local enforcement.

Evolution of Asterousia SES

2012-09-07T06:30:06+00:00

Authors:	Aikaterini Kounalaki, Mina Karamesouti, Eleni Briassouli, Minas Metaxakis, Vassilis Detsis, Thanasis Kizos, Theodoros Iosifides, Alexandros Kandalepas, Constantinos Kosmas
Coordinating authors:	Concepción L. Alados, Giovanni Quaranta
Editors:	Alexandros Kandelapas, Jane Brandt

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 20Mar14: Source D132-5.1.1{/xtypo_alert}

Based on environmental, social, economic, responses, LEDD issues, and political characteristics, the following two major states of the SES of Asteroussia Mountains have been identified.

Mediterranean semi-arid husbandry state (1950 to mid 1980s)

During this period, grazing land is managed relatively satisfactorily with low problems of soil erosion despite adverse soil topographic and climatic conditions. Decline in population is significant due to domestic and foreign outmigration. In addition ageing of the remaining population is a major problem in land management. Significant investment in infrastructure is undertaken including the expansion and modernization of the transportation network, medical facilities, dairy manufacturing, etc. Moreover, transportation by sea and air connecting Crete with Athens and other European countries is drastically improved.

These changes however do not manage retain the attractiveness of agriculture as a livelihood option. Instead, tourism development along the northern coastal, offers new jobs. Traditional land management is altered through mechanization of agriculture and intensive exploitation of natural resources. Services by the Ministry of Agriculture are improved and offered at municipality level. Wheat cultivation is replaced by new plantations of olive groves and orange trees in the lowland along the coast. The introduction of fertilizers and pesticides for crop production increase leads to soil and water pollution.
Central national programming and planning dominate, without always considering local administrative needs. Furthermore, there exist strong informal social networks that affect local planning and programming.

Subsidized husbandry state (mid 1980s to circa 2010)

This period is characterised by a stabilisation of the population as well its general ageing. EU accession greatly influences the local economy, in the first instance through the allocation of subsidies. However, although farmers' income increases, the contribution of the agricultural sector to the regional economy declines due to the continuing growth of tourism development. The expansion of the public sector provides additional and more attractive employment opportunities. New agricultural processing industries are established and new technologies are introduced in husbandry, while more recently, the presence of foreign migrants help to keep many farms active. However, the allocation of subsidies greatly affects agricultural production. Many farmers are employed part or full time in other sectors of the economy, affecting grazing land management. However, grazing of land generally intensifies as the number of grazing animals increases due to allocated subsidies. Land use change towards olives and vines plantation continues replacing annual crops. Greenhouses expand significantly in the lowland as well as in the hilly grazing areas. Organic farming starts in the 1990s.

During this period, the cumulative effects of agricultural modernisation gradually become apparent: over-exploitation of natural resources (number of animals increase, expansion of irrigation, application of fertilizers and pesticides) lead to increasing rates of soil erosion in hilly sloping areas, pollution of ground water and soil salinization of lowland areas. Environmental degradation is widespread in the broad area and major LEDD issues are raised. The period is also marked by a gradual strengthening of the local and regional government, the introduction of the first Regional Spatial Plan for Crete (2003) as well as the rise of civil society organizations, including consumer and environmental protection groups.

More details ... each period is fully described in the following articles

Semi-arid husbandry state (1950 to mid 1980s)
Subsidized husbandry state (mid 1980s to circa 2010)

Mediterranean semi-arid husbandry state (1950 to mid 1980s)

2012-09-07T06:59:01+00:00

Authors:	Aikaterini Kounalaki, Mina Karamesouti, Eleni Briassouli, Minas Metaxakis, Vassilis Detsis, Thanasis Kizos, Theodoros Iosifides, Alexandros Kandalepas, Constantinos Kosmas
Coordinating authors:	Concepción L. Alados, Giovanni Quaranta
Editors:	Alexandros Kandelapas, Jane Brandt

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 20Mar14: Source D232-5.1.1{/xtypo_alert}

Assessment of natural, economic and social capitals

Natural capital
Assessment	Soil capital in the Asteroussia Mountains is a slowly changing variable. The majority of the area (61.3%) during this period, is characterized by shallow soils (soil depth class 15-30 cm). Moderately deep soils (soil depth 30-60 cm) cover 29.9% of the total area. Soil capital is mainly low due to a high degree of degradation further in the past. The area does not have significant water resources, with surface water runoff restricted to occurring during the wet period (November – February). The Anapodaris River, the longest river of Crete with a flow of about 40 million cubic meters, crosses the eastern part of Asteroussia Mountainous area. However, water quality is high and therefore of high capital value. The greatest part (91.7%) of the area is covered by natural shrubby vegetation that is characterized as moderate vegetation capital. High and very high vegetation capital (olive groves, arable crops) cover only 7.9% of the area. Most of the area is characterized by moderate climate capital, attributed to high aridity. The south part of the mountains is subject to lower rainfall and therefore low climate capital.
Critical functions	Critical ecological functions are the regulation of hydrological processes and the regional surface energy balance. Both functions are related to soil depth and plant cover. Under the climatic and soil conditions here, below a critical soil depth of 50 cm, plant cover rapidly decreases and consequently surface water runoff significantly increases.
Critical variables	Soil depth (slow) Plant cover (slow) Land use change (fast)

Economic capital
Assessment	Produced capital. While data on (regional and local) GDP are scarce, during this period Crete is recovering from a decade of wars (WWII, Civil War). Dependency on the primary sector and the economy of subsistence leads to significant migration until it is gradually replaced from the late 1960s by a tourism cash economy. Until the 1970s well over 60% of the active population of Asteroussia are farmers. Financial capital is extremely limited to remittances by migrants and later from foreign exchange by the tourism industry. Data on the disposable income are not available. Landesque capital includes husbandry infrastructure and infrastructure for cereal production and processing. Husbandry infrastructure included stables, storehouses, milking pens, and enclosure walls or fences (stone constructions often dating from the pre-Minoan civilizations). These constructions are gradually replaced by concrete, metal and wood and new wire enclosures separate grazing lands. The lack of older enclosures indicates an open type landscape in the past. Infrastructures for processing cereals (wheat and barley) are a component of the landesque capital from the past The harvest was threshed in threshing floors (circular level structures paved with stones) and seeds were then taken to local water mills, none of which remain. Physical capital. No productive infrastructures (e.g. factories) are present, excluding small cheese making units. Transport infrastructure is concentrated at Heraklion (port, roads, airport). Primary and secondary schools are established in the 1960s and clinics in the 1970s. Technology. Lack of credit does not appear to restrict the spread of tractors in the area. Animal (livestock), plant and forest capital. The larger part of Asteroussia consists of grazing lands (60% of the area, 94% private and 6% common). Number sheep and goats in the 1960s is half what it will be come by 2010.
Critical functions	For this period, the most critical economic functions are lack of credit and limited cash availability. Linkages with the critical social functions in the area for this period, which include the high density and importance of bonding type small networks, are important: the social and economic systems in the area remain highly interrelated.
Critical variables	Economic production (fast variable, changing annually). Physical capital (very slowly changing variables, with gradual accumulation towards the end of the period) Landesque capital (very slowly changing variables, with gradual accumulation towards the end of the period) Animal capital (slow variable)

Social capital
Assessment	During the period the demographic capital of Asteroussia steadily weakens. Losses take place mainly due to some major and wider socio-economic changes and processes, notably urbanization on local/regional and country levels which leads to mass outmigration to other regional settlements, large cities and especially Athens and internationally. This decline leads to an enhanced degree of population ageing. Human capital can be characterised as relatively or very poor, in terms of formal education and skill credentials. However, informal human capital (local knowledge) is very much alive and significant. As this knowledge progressively declines it is not replaced by systematic formal education and training (for example, of stockbreeders). Social and cultural devaluation of the stockbreeding profession is rapid. Cultural capital together with social capital are some of the more stable characteristics of local and regional communities (slow variables). Persisting cultural and identity characteristics include strong communal organization, the importance of place and descent for forming identities, strong familial and kinship organization, social status according to the number of animals and sons in each extended family. Cultural meanings that stockbreeders ascribe to their activities and profession are also important: naturalness, freedom and the emotional connections and links with nature and animals still persist during this period. Research participants report that during the 1960s social relations were less conflictual and competitive and more cohesive. Institutional capital is generally weak. Despite administrative changes institutional capital displays characteristics of slow variable. Institutional structure is highly centralized and local administrative structures are characterized by extreme segmentation, clientelism and “partitocracy”. Accordingly, trust in institutions is extremely limited to their clientelist functioning.
Critical functions	The most important critical social functions are the powerful and dense social networks based on kinship, either families or extended families and the christening of children (koumparies). Farmers maintain working and family relations (especially of the koumparies type) with farmers in the plain and move their livestock (sheep and goats) into the plain in the winter from their summer grazing lands. These transhumance networks provide networks with localities outside the geographical limits of the mountains, mostly of the bridging type of social capital that appear to transcend partly or interweave with these networks.
Critical variables	Cultural capital changes (slow but increasing in rate following economic change) Administrative capital (very slow-unchanged) Demographic capital (fast variable due to population loss of young and economically active population)

Main LEDD problems and responses

The main LEDD problems during the period are soil erosion and land desertification. Their severity gradually increases after the 1950s due to decreased plant cover caused by the increasing number of animals grazing the area, with problems particularly severe in the south-facing slopes.

The main responses are:

Land use change (positive): cereal cultivation in sloping areas is abandoned and fields converted to pastures by allowing the natural vegetation to grow, with positive effects on critical ecological functions. The whole process however is part of the wider social and economical abandonment.
Fires in natural vegetation (negative) by farmers in order to generate palatable biomass production for grazing animals. It is characterized as a negative response since removal of plant cover for a short period favours high soil erosion rates. Fire risk also generally increases due to increased biomass (through abandonment) and other factors (increased technology and road accessibility).
Sustainable grazing/over-grazing (positive/negative) are two opposite responses. In the first instance, animal population remains low, often due to out-migration of local population. In contrast, some farmers re-organize their activities by increasing the grazing land and the number of animals and overgrazing the land, often employing wildfires as a tool to increase pallatable biomass.

Policy context
{xtypo_alert}AK: to check that implementation, impacts and effectiveness of selected policies are discussed in this text. Look at D242 to see if there is any additional information. {/xtypo_alert}

The main policies in effect are development policies focused primarily on the growth of tourism through support in transport (ports, airports) and cultural (museum, archaelogical excavations) infrastructure. While tourism in the Asteroussia Mountains is practically non-existent, the rapid growth of Heraklion and the northern coast of Crete bring about the growth of a series of related industries such as construction, transport and services which prove significant sources of employment and pluri-employment for rural populations.

The post-war efforts of the Greek government to modernize agriculture affect the Asteroussia mountains only indirectly but adversely. Modernization, mechanization and specialization led to the gradual conversion of the Messara plain to olive groves and horticulture, leading to a practical cessation of cereal cultivation and traditional transhumance practices. Therefore, the 1970s and 1980s see an unravelling of centuries-old farming systems prompted, not by policies implemented inside the study site, but in the neighbouring Messara valley. No specific policies with regard to (extensive) grazing are formulated or implemented. Environmental policies are gradually introduced from 1974 but with limited implementation and imperceptible effects during the period.

During the latter part of this period (mid-1970s to mid-1980s) several policies act as drivers of LEDD, most notably:

tourism, the dominance of the construction sector and the (lack of) spatial planning policy facilitate land-use change. Although tourism growth is extremely limited within the study site, its growth and potential for employment prove a powerful source of attraction for young people.
Agricultural policy through the introduction of specialized olive monoculture (1970-1981) and the consolidation of this specialization through CAP subsidies (post 1981). Although this process takes place mainly in Messara, it affects Asteroussia breeders relying on Messara grain for feed and forces them to turn to feed importers, mainly based in Heraklion.
The application of the CAP quota system acts as a fairly straightforward LEDD driver, partly through its inherent design as a complement to northern European husbandry systems. Subsidies are given on a quantity basis, fuelling a race to increase short-term animal productivity, through increased inputs such as imported feed, medicine and intensive grazing. Predictably, the number of sheep and goats in the Asteroussia Mountains rises dramatically.

These well-financed policies empower actors such as policy implementers and "gatekeepers" of public money (e.g. unions of agricultural cooperatives, political party networks). The emphasis of the CAP on farming and modernization leaves traditional breeders without technical support or specialized instruments and contributes to the thwarting of collective efforts on their part.

During the 1970s and early 1980s a body of legislation is introduced as a response to wider environmental degradation, mainly pollution. These policies, stemming from the 1975 constitution, include water, biodiversity and environmental licensing. Their contribution to addressing LEDD problems in the Asteroussia Mountains is marginal to say the least.

In a similar vein, the provisions of article 24 and law 998/1979 (forests), are seen by many rural residents and farmers to impose undue constraints on private property. As a result, there is general tendency to actively prevent any growth of woody species (excluding planted trees such as olives) on private property as it might lead to its classification as forest land. The above tendency is further aided by the lack of a central land registry.

Properties of the system
{xtypo_alert}AK: to check if there is any further relevant information in D233{/xtypo_alert}

Natural capital: Livestock diversity (Shannon index) is between 1.2-1.4 over74.2% of total surface. Grazing is the dominant land cover type, forming a continuous matrix within which minor land cover types are embedded (enclaves of various types of cultivations).

Economic captial: The economy is characterized by a strong degree of subsistence. Sheep husbandry is the dominant occupation of most households although pluri activity is widely practiced out of necessity. In this sense, the system is characterized by a high degree of redundancy. Although economic diversity can be considered to be very low (due to dominance of primary sector), in reality, non-monetized activities contribute to an economically diverse system. Although the potential available for change in the produce and financial components of the property of the system are low, for the rest of the components this potential can be considered as higher.

Social capital: Social capital during the period is characterized by powerful and dense social networks of the bounding type (kinship, (extended) families, christening of children (koumparies)). The dominant economic organization (subsistence farming, husbandry) favours the importance of the strength these networks in terms of local politics, land management and social relations. These networks also include farmers in the Messara plain and support transhumance patterns. In terms of the demographic capital, an important decline of the population is observed and the population ages.

Socio-ecological resilience
{xtypo_alert}AK: to be added, source: D233{/xtypo_alert}

Socio-ecological fit of the dominant response to LEDD
{xtypo_alert}AK: to be added, source: D233{/xtypo_alert}

Subsidized husbandry state (mid 1980s to circa 2010)

2013-08-05T12:17:07+00:00

Authors:	Aikaterini Kounalaki, Mina Karamesouti, Eleni Briassouli, Minas Metaxakis, Vassilis Detsis, Thanasis Kizos, Theodoros Iosifides, Alexandros Kandalepas, Constantinos Kosmas
Coordinating authors:	Concepción L. Alados, Giovanni Quaranta
Editors:	Alexandros Kandelapas, Jane Brandt

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 20Mar14: Source D232-5.1.2{/xtypo_alert}

Assessment of natural, economic and social capitals

Natural capital
Assessment	Soil capital continues to be low due to high degree of degradation in the past. The soils of low capital cover 69.8% of the area, and 30.0% it is moderate. Low soil capital is attributed to the dominant characteristics of the area, namely shallow soils and steep slopes. Water capital continues to be low due to absence of water resources. Nevertheless, surface water runoff is classified as high capital value. Wells for drinking water and irrigation have been drilled in flysch/limestone areas in the southern part of the site.. Vegetation capital continues to be moderate and to consist of natural shrubby vegetation, except in parts with olive groves and few vineyards (6.5%). Ecological value of the mountains, assessed after a floristic inventory is relatively high. Pastoral value, assessed based on the plant production, quality and palatability of existing plant species, is primarily low. Climate capital continues to be moderate although a decrease in rainfall and increase in air temperature are observed. Climate capital is low in the south (and south facing) part of the site.
Critical functions	Critical ecological functions include (a) regulation of hydrological processes, and (b) regional surface energy balance. With regard to (a), the ability to regulate hydrological processes decreases from the 1950 to mid-1980s. This is clearly attributed to the degradation due to overgrazing and soil erosion resulting in reduction of the ability of the land to support adequate perennial vegetation. Regional surface energy balance also deteriorates between the two periods. Again, decrease in plant cover is attributed to overgrazing and to soil erosion reducing soil water storage capacity for supporting perennial vegetation during the dry period.
Critical variables	Environmental variables are generally the same, namely (soil depth and plant cover, both slow variables). Frequency of fire is a fast variable that is introduced in this period

Economic capital
Assessment	Produced capital. During this period, Crete GDP jumps from 83% of the national average in 1981 to 106% in 1994 to 101% in 2009. However, more than half of this value is concentrated in Heraklion and the tertiary sector, reflecting the rise of tourism. The share of the primary sector decreases at the same time. In Asteroussia, however, the primary sector persists with a 67% of total employment in 2001, falling by a small 4% since 1991. The number of farms decreases from over 2,200 in 1961 to 1,810 in 2000. Average farm size is stable at around 8.0 ha. At the same time, the number of goats and sheep has almost doubled since 1961. The study site also has high rates of empty (abandoned) houses. Financial capital increases dramatically during this period primarily due to agricultural subsidies. The rationale of national, regional and local authorities was “not to lose money” that could be paid to farmers in the area, utilising to that end a variety of social networks. The mobilisation of the (state) Agricultural Bank provides affordable credit to cooperatives for investments in manufacture (especially olive mills). Along with cash from tourism, total savings, total deposits and disposable income more than double between the years 1980 and 2000 (in Heraklion Prefecture). Availability of credit for (agricultural) investments through EU funds as well as the WIDER banking sector also increases dramatically from the mid-1990s. Landesque capital is tranformed during the period from traditional stone constructions to concrete, metal and wood and the dominance of wire enclosures. Irrigation infrastructure expands significantly in the form of private, small scale infrastructure. It is composed exclusively of small electric powered pumps that operate after a drill has found underground water in the field. Water is then transported with plastic tubes. Official permits are required for drills, but there is an unknown number of illegal drills and management is difficult if not impossible. Physical capital, such as factories and other productive infrastructure remain scarce, with the exception of a number of small agri-processing units for raw and processed products. Major points of entry to Crete (port and airport) are in Heraklion. The small port of Tympaki (just outside the limits of the study site) serves local needs. Transport infrastructure (road networks) and connections with Heraklion vastly improve during the period although maintenance of the mountain roads remains problematic. The number of primary schools doubles from the 1980s although for senior high school students need to move to neighbouring Messara. Family relocation for better schools is not uncommon. Two rural clinics are in operation from the 1980s. Health centers are located in Tympaki and Moires, and hospitals in Heraklion. Most residents own their houses and foreigners rent some of the older buildings. Many older houses are not used anymore and a number of buildings are used only seasonally as their owners live in Heraklion or not on the island. From the 1980s, credit through EU funds and imports render agricultural technologies much more available. Basic machinery (e.g. tractors) is now widely available. The period sees a rise in self-employed agronomists, related retail shops as well as spare parts manufacturers (the latter now defunct). Basic irrigation technology is also widespread. Animal (livestock), plant and forest capital. The number of sheep and goats has almost tripled in the last fifty years. The highest increase is recorded from 1991 to 2001 (by 91%) when the former system of per head subsidy was still in use.
Critical functions	The most important critical economic function is the wide availability and affordability of credit. Again interrelated with CEF: soil depth and water quantity and quality.
Critical variables	Production capital increases at high rates, as does physical capital, albeit with a slower pace. Financial capital is generally available throughout the period, while landesque and plant capitals remain more or less stable.

Social capital
Assessment	Demographic capital continues to be weak with no signs of dynamism: population ageing and low population density prevail. The small proportion of young, active and dynamic labour limits the prospects for adopting collective and innovative methods for production, value creation and income generation as well as long-term land and environmental conservation policies. The period also sees an increase in immigration in the area. In terms of human capital, around 70% of Asteroussia inhabitants are graduates of primary education. The percentage of inhabitants with no formal education falls below 10% during the 1990s. Low levels of formal human capital together with the weakening of local knowledge create an unfavourable environment for the development of long-term land conservation and sustainable production management practices. Very little training regarding land and herd management is available to stockbreeders and practically none is sought. The same applies to more modern skills such as production planning, sales and marketing. This is extremely important, as social and cultural devaluation of this social group creates social and institutional distrust, cooperation difficulties and non-compliance to formal norms. Social and cultural capital in Asteroussia and in most mountainous stockbreeding areas of Crete, are closely intertwined. The dominant form of social organization is the extended family and kinship network, a form of extremely strong bonding social capital. It is accompanied by the strength of personal connections and identities based on common places of descent. Individuals from the same village or area form kinship relations and set boundaries (with other groups) which foster rigid, conflictual and antagonistic relations. In this context, animals are not a simple asset subject to ‘rational management’. They embody symbolic meanings which in turn affect management. The status of the extended family and kinship group is partly dependent on the volume of the herd (and on the number of sons and size of the kinship group). Status competition among kinship groups survives, sometimes taking the form of complete rupture of social relations or even violent conflict and crimes between opposing families. Prospects for developing wider social trust among different groups are narrow and limit the chances of engagement in collective action. "Bridging" social capital based on wider trust, social cooperation, and mutual respect between different social groups and spatial units and between social groups and local/regional institutions is generally absent. The lack of this type of social capital and the persistent forms of social and inter-personal competition critically affect natural resource use. Kinship networks have remained strong well into current times and are informally incorporated in "modern" governance (e.g. party politics, subsidies) and market structures. In fact, subsidies have fuelled existing processes, such as competition for large herd sizes. Social distrust has also been reinforced through competition for available subsidies as well as party politics. The social/cultural emphasis on number of animals has also hampered individual or collective responses to market demand for dairy or meat products (farm modernisation, marketing). In this context land management, long-term productivity and sustainability remain marginal concerns. Antagonism also prevails with neighbouring Messara Valley with competition for access to resources (land, water) undermining older forms of tolerance (if not cooperation) such as transhumance. This period represents a significant departure from previous periods in terms of institutional capital, albeit not without continuities. EU accession in the early 1980s is followed by continuous regional/local administrative reforms during the period (introduction of a regional government, consolidation of communities into municipalities, regional elections). Although decentralisation is introduced with optimism, its functionality is limited. Corruption, clientelism, lack of social trust, civil service deficiencies and lack of innovative initiatives from local/regional authorities persist. Top-down politics and policies remain strong often assisted by informal network. Trust towards regional and local institutions is still extremely limited. Primary producers in Asteroussia have limited trust in formal institutions, including their own cooperatives. It is safe however to add that institutional representatives exhibit the same distrust towards citizens, and stockbreeders in particular. In this context, family and kinship based social networks and patron-client relations between stockbreeders and institutional representatives form an integral part of formal institutions.
Critical functions	Cooperation networks between farmers and shepherds stop completely. Distrust grows and makes cooperation very difficult. At the same time, the subsidies and how they will be distributed disrupt and erode former networks and set up new in their placed centered on the subsidies. The importance of these networks grows with other sectors of the political and social life. These developments change the properties of the social capital of the area.
Critical variables	Social variables manifest the effects of slow changes of the previous period and are dominated by an ageing agricultural population. Administratively, local actors have more power in terms of planning and implementing policies, although central control remains important. CAP subsidies transform older bonding networks based on kin into new ones based on subsidies.

Main LEDD problems and responses

The main LEDD problems during the period are soil erosion, water stress and land desertification. While during until the 1950s the majority (87.6%) of the area was characterized by low rates of soil erosion, soil erosion rates gradually increase after 1950s and become worse after the mid-1980s. Areas with low erosion rates have decreased to 48.5% of the total area while the area with erosion rates greater than 5 t ha-¹year-¹ has increased to 40.5%. This is mainly attributed to overgrazing.

Land desertification constitutes a severe problem for the area with fragile areas covering 55% of the total area and environmentally sensitive areas (ESAs) covering 43%. Such areas are mainly found in the south-facing slopes. Compared to the previous period, a large proportion of the area has moved from the fragile to the critical category. This trend is bound to continue under the existing land management practices.

High water stress for plants is typical in the study site and reduces significantly available palatable biomass for grazing animals (a long dry period of at least six months, no rain, high air temperatures, strong dry winds, high evapotranspiration rates). Low soil water storage capacity is crucial in this respect: rain water stored into the soil during the wet period can feed the growing plants for no more than one month during the dry period. Farmers have to transfer hay or grain from other areas to support their animals during the dry period.

Responses to LEDD problems consist of the following:

Integrated land management (positive) consists of formulating and applying an appropriate grazing plan. In case of excessive animal numbers, provisions have to be made for increasing forage supply, providing alternative feed resources or reducing the number of animals.
Fires in natural vegetation (negative) increase during the last decades as they are propagated (illegally) by farmers in order to generate palatable biomass production for grazing animals. Removal of plant cover favours high soil erosion rates. Fire risk has also generally increased due to increased biomass (through abandonment) and other factors (increased technology and road accessibility).
Overgrazing (negative) is the dominant response. During the mid 1980-2010 period, the animal population doubles, natural, economic and social capital characteristics combine with EU subsidies resulting in unprecedented (and unsustainable) animals numbers and associated overgrazing and erosion problems. The number of animals increases despite loss of available grazing lands in neighbouring Messara (transhumance) due to increased availability of feed, improved transport networks, cash availability (credit and subsidies). Overgrazing negatively affects biodiversity, the regulation of hydrological processes and surface energy balance. Overgrazing causes severe soil erosion problems increasing the vulnerability of the land to desertification.

The main responses to water stress:

Protection of terracing land (positive) positively affects regulation of hydrological processes and surface energy balance. In a terrace, adsorption of water by the soil increases during heavy rainfall events and soil erosion is reduced. Water runoff from the upper side of the terraced interval is held within the terrace, infiltrating and being stored into the soil. The higher amount of soil water favours plant growth and vegetation cover reducing soil temperature extremes and regulating surface energy balance, soil water evaporation and microbial activity.
Water harvesting (positive) generally includes reducing surface water runoff and increasing soil infiltration rates. For example, presence of adequate shrubby or annual vegetation cover, construction of terraces, concentration of runoff water in small ponds and retarding runoff and keeping plant residues on the soil surface.

The period from the late 1980s is marked by peace and parliamentary stability, unprecedented in the history of Greece as well as of Crete and the study site. The period is dominated by the political projects of the European Economic Community / European Union such as the single market (1992), the monetary union and trade liberalization. Liberalization of credit markets and low interest rates also form a decisive influence upon economic development. Various reforms lead to gradual devolution including establishment of regional governance and the reorganization of village communities: municipalities are reduced from over 50 to 9 (in 1997) and then to 4 in 2010.

Development policies, primarily tourism, dominate during the period. During the 1990s tourism consolidates its position as the major economic activity in Crete extending to the Messara coast and is complemented by construction of second homes for affluent Cretans and other Greeks. It also becomes evident that Heraklion, if not Crete as a whole, is quickly approaching its limits as a destination. Successive revisions of the investment law gradually limit investment incentives.

Agriculture/rural development policies also dominate by providing income to the rural population and raising the general standard of living. However, at the same time financing rules make it almost unavoidable to abandon traditional husbandry practices, and to some extent, the entrenchment of the quota system prevents demand-driven restructuring. Although the introduction of the Code of Good Agricultural Practice remains non-enforced at the ground level, it does provide an overall limit upon the number of animals per hectare, thereby providing a cap upon final subsidy received. Rural development policy since the mid-1990s leaves its mark in rural Crete although it has made little inroads into the remote areas of the Asteroussia Mountains.

The importance of EU regional policy (structural funds) cannot be overstated: large scale investment in infrastructure takes place (roads, ports, telecommunications, schools, hospitals, universities). Although investment is concentrated in the main cities (Heraklion), there is a general improvement in connectivity and available services. Public works executed by central, regional and local governments are unprecedented. Road works are the main recipient of EU support in Heraklion (drawing from both the Regional Development and Rural Development fund), followed by steadily rising percentage of investment support for small and medium-sized enterprises.

Environmental policies begin to be implemented in earnest in the 1990s. Water policy is of particular importance: technological improvements, credit availability and rising water demand lead to a proliferation of groundwater extraction without however general water management plans. Horizontal environmental policy, whose main instrument is the approval of environmental terms of operation based on an environmental impact assessment, is also introduced in the mid-1980s but has little application in the study site except for abattoirs and new facilities for sheltering sheep and goats. Strategic environmental assessment has only recently been implemented with regard to the Operational Program 2007-2013. Although the document highlights road construction as major threat for the Cretan environment, all evidence shows that road construction remains the main activity to be financed by the ERDF in Crete and the Asteroussia mountains. Biodiversity policy is also relevant in the study site which is included in the NATURA2000 network. Although no management measures have achieved regulatory status yet, sensitization of the population is taking place, prompting a drastic decline in intended poisoning and a general recovery of the fragile vulture population. Local demands for the implementation of biodiversity policy have increased in the face of proposals for large scale renewable energy installations throughout the mountain range. Attempts at the implementation of a (soil) policy to combat desertification at the national level have a limited influence upon the study site, despite its identification as an area under extremely high desertification risk.

Policies as LEDD drivers

Unprecedented growth during 1990-2010 is a major LEDD driver in Asteroussia. This growth is the combination of several long-lasting development policies or strategies as well as the general availability of public and private financial resources.

The greatest LEDD driver during the period is the CAP, fuelling a growth in the number of animals and abandonment of local farming practices, in an attempt to maximize milk production.
Increasing EU and global trade drastically improves the availability and deployment of agricultural supplies and machinery. These products and methods however are often unsuitable for fragile rangelands such as the Asteroussia Mountains. For example, the use of tractors on hilly slopes is a major factor for erosion, or imported animals may be unsuitable for the mountain without large amounts of feed and medicine.
The same trade dynamic also puts increasing pressure for competitiveness and intensive resource use upon breeders who are particularly exposed to high feed and low milk prices.
The national emphasis on tourism and construction has functioned as an indirect driver by making alternative sources of employment more attractive and prompting the rural exodus.

Policies as responses to LEDD

A host of environmental policies are introduced at the national and EU level from the 1990s as responses to environmental degradation. The Asteroussia study site is largely unaffected by these policies as their implementation has been inadequate.

Attempts at water management instigated by the Regional Water Directorate throughout the 1990s largely fall through, resulting in escalating scarcity and prompting a general ban on all new water extraction in 2008/2009. At the same time, one should note that rural development policy has allowed the emergence of new actors and methods of collective organization in Heraklion which may have a lasting influence. New forms of pooling of resources emerge both in the public (municipalities forming development agencies) and private (producer groups in organic farming or extrovert cooperatives) sectors. While it is true that these forms of cooperation are facilitated and motivated by access to EU funds, their social mechanisms may be easily replicated and/or deployed in other fields or for the achievement of wider local objectives.

While local demand for policy responses to LEDD is limited due to the perverse incentive posed by CAP subsidies, towards the end of the period the issue of rangeland management emerges as a legitimate bottom-up objective, with possible solutions being sought through the application of rural development and to some extent biodiversity policies.

Properties of the system
{xtypo_alert}AK: to check if there is any further relevant information in D233{/xtypo_alert}

Natural capital: The area is consistently robust in the production of woody Mediterranean macchia (soil depth greater than 30 cm on flysch parent material). Diversity of livestock (based on the Shannon index) ranges between 1.0 and 1.2, covering 62.9% of the total area; a significant decrease since the last period. Plant cover diversity is greatly related to soil depth but the majority of the study site falls is within (Shannon index) 1.8 - 2.0.

Land used for grazing continues to dominate the landscape, forming a continuous matrix within which minor land cover types are embedded (limited cultivations although fewer and larger compared to the previous period). Woody encroachment by shrubs leads to decreased connectivity as well as loss of grazing land. Potential for change from shrub to forest vegetation is greatly limited by the climatic conditions and soil characteristics and is generally low.

Economic captial: Economic capital is influenced by

the shift from a subsistence to a more open and market-oriented state: cooperation networks and practices between herders in the site and farmers in Messara (cereal cultivation – fallow) are disrupted;
the slight shift from occupation in the primary sector to services;
population decline and ageing;
CAP subsidies providing cash and livelihood options for farm households;
credit from banks and investment programs.

All the changes transform the economic system of the area into a much more open and market- oriented system that is relatively robust, diverse and redundant, albeit relying on external economic inputs (subsidies, credit).

Social capital: Social capital is affected by changes originating in the previous period. Cooperation network between farmers and shepherds stops completely and is replaced by distrust and resource competition (both land and subsidies). New networks, revolving around subsidies, begin to dominate in political and social life, operating in parallel or in conjunction with cultural values and identities (familial units, kinship networks, localism). The institutional structure is characterised by the general tendency towards decentralization, but with a low level of trust in formal institutions at least traditional patronage networks persist.

Socio-ecological resilience
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Socio-ecological fit of the dominant response to LEDD
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Optimal response assemblages, policy recommendations for Asterousia SES**

2012-09-07T07:00:50+00:00

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{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 6Sept12: Source D233.{/xtypo_alert}

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