Assessment methods

How to describe a SES

2012-09-06T04:10:50+00:00

Authors: Inma Alados, Agostino Ferrara, Constantinos Kosmas, Giovanni Quaranta

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{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 6Sept12: Source D711-5.1 Table-aD. Parameter descriptions are taken from D121, 221 and 321, however not all parameters listed in Table-aD are described in these deliverables. This list will need to be reviewed again. {/xtypo_alert}

The following methods and techniques can be used to describe the state and evolution of the biophysical and human system components of a SES in cropland, grazing land and forests & shrubland. Certain assessment methods and techniques are common to all three land themes such as the descriptive methods for the components of the biophysical and the human system and several impact assessment methods and techniques for biophysical and socio-economic impacts. Other methods and techniques are particular to each land theme. Wherever possible, a variety of available methods and techniques are presented for the same subject. The use of alternative methods and techniques depends on availability of data, time and expertise, among others. Several assessment methods and techniques are used for more than one purpose; for example, to describe the state of the system (e.g. soil erosion) and to assess the impacts of human activities on this system (e.g. soil erosion under intensive agriculture; or to describe the biophysical environment and to assess the natural capital).

Each assessment method/technique has been described, to the extent possible, using the following format:

Aim of the method/technique, what questions the method/technique addresses
Scale, spatial and temporal (local, regional, static, dynamic); cross-scale features
Brief description, variables, solution techniques, geo-referenced, etc.
Data requirements
Main applications in land theme, based on the literature review
Strengths and weaknesses

Key: characteristics/variables used to describe:

Cropland

Grazing land

Forests & shrubland

Components of the biophysical system	Characteristic/variable	Common assessment methods and techniques
Climate{showhide title="»more details ..." changetitle="«more details ..." closeonclick=true} Climate is an important factor affecting plant growth, water availability, water demands soil erosion, soil salinization, land degradation, etc. The scarcity of precipitation, irregular annual and inter-annual distribution, extreme events and out-of season rainy and vegetative periods in the semi-arid and arid zones are the main climatic factors contribution to land degradation and desertification. It is predicted that global climate change will greatly affect the vulnerability of areas sensitive to degradation under semi-arid climatic conditions. Climate variability has a large impact on the ecosystem functions, but the impact is not the same for every region; it will be stronger for regions with a delicate balance between climate and ecosystem, like the Mediterranean region (Roerink et al. 2003). In particular, it is important to study climatic variation in different time periods and the environmental effects of this variation in Mediterranean ecosystems. Climatic characteristics important for the description of an area related to land resources management are described here. Depending on the temporal detail of the data (hourly, daily, monthly, etc.) provided by the various meteorological stations, the typical descriptive statistical techniques used to analyze the data are: average values, standard deviation, average minimum and maximum values, and absolute minimum and maximum values for a certain period. Climatic data are usually presented in graphs showing their change over time. {/showhide}	»Air temperature	Descriptive statistics and graphs
	»Rainfall	Descriptive statistics and graphs
	»Rainfall seasonality
	»Potential evapotranspiration
	»Climograph	Combining precipitation, temperature and potential evapotranspiration
	»Aridity index	Bagnouls-Gaussen index
	»Climate quality index	ESA method (MEDALUS III)
	»Raster map	Grid values for climate data
Geology{showhide title="»more details ..." changetitle="«more details ..." closeonclick=true}Geology, and especially the uppermost earth geological layer, is a significant factor affecting soil characteristics (Buol et al., 1981), land degradation and desertification risk (Kosmas et al. 1999), biodiversity, ground water recharge, etc. Geology determines the basic characteristics of soil parent material. Soils derived from different parent materials react differently to soil erosion, vegetation growth, and land desertification. Limestone produces shallow soils with a relatively dry moisture regime, with slow vegetation recovery (Kosmas et al. 1999). Similarly, acid igneous parent materials such as pyroclastics produce shallow soils with high erodibility and high desertification risk.{/showhide}	»Geology	Mapping based on soil data base of Europe
Geomorphology{showhide title="»more details ..." changetitle="«more details ..." closeonclick=true}Geomorphology, in terms of the three Greek roots from which the word is derived, means “a discourse on land forms”. Geomorphology affects various process related to land degradation and desertification in cropland such as mass wasting (transfer of mass of rock debris down slope under the influence of gravity), soil erosion, soil salinization. The technique used to describe the geomorphology is mapping using existing classification systems. Definition of geomorphology is usually based on the information derived from geomorphological maps or through the analyses of Digital Elevation Models (DEM).{/showhide}	»Geomorphology	Engelen and Wen (1995) geomorphologic landforms classification
	»Digital elevation model	Describes altitude, aspect and slope
Soil resources {showhide title="»more details ..." changetitle="«more details ..." closeonclick=true}Soils are natural bodies on which plants grow. Man’s standard of living is often determined by the quality of soils and the quality of plants and animals growing on them. It is a dominant factor of the terrestrial ecosystems affecting vulnerability to degradation. The soil physical and chemical characteristics determine the water storage capacity, the nutrient availability for plant growth, the rate of vegetation degradation under adverse climatic conditions. Under semi-arid and dry sub-humid climatic conditions, land becomes irreversibly desertified when rooting depth is not capable of providing adequate amount of nutrients and water to the growing plants. The process of land degradation is possible to start with the organic matter content decrease in the upper soil layers resulting in loss of biological activity and soil structure decline. Soil resources can be effectively described by presenting soil mapping units on a map of a certain scale.{/showhide}	»Soil resources Parent material, depth, slope texture, rock fragment, drainage, classification	Mapping based on existing classification systems
	»Soil map	Standard soil map
Hydrology {showhide title="»more details ..." changetitle="«more details ..." closeonclick=true}Knowledge of water resources of a region is of great importance for the economic and environmental management and planning. Recently, water resources are under severe physical, social, economic and environmental pressures especially in areas with semi-arid and arid climatic conditions. The intensification of agriculture by using new high productivity plant varieties, combined with climate changes, have led to expansion of irrigation in drylands that causes severe water and soil degradation problems. Agriculture plays a major role in water consumption and water chemical degradation, but at the same time it is the economic sector facing the most severe impacts. Total water abstraction for irrigation in Europe is about 105.068 Hm³/year. The mean water allocation for agriculture has decreased from around 5.499 to 5.170 m³/ha/year after 1990 (EEA 2005).{/showhide}	»Hydrology network	Mapping rivers, creeks, and lakes at watershed level
	»Water quantity	Water resources data from regional water resources authorities
	»Water exploitation	Data on water consumption, decrease in surface water, aquifer recharge
	»Soil water availability
	»Water scarcity	Ratio of water availability per capita versus water consumption per capita for past 10 years period
	»Water quality
Ecosystem{showhide title="»more details ..." changetitle="«more details ..." closeonclick=true}According to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (UNEP-MA), an ecosystem is a dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism communities and the nonliving environment, interacting as a functional unit. Humans are an integral part of ecosystems. A well-defined ecosystem has strong interactions among its components and weak interactions across its boundaries. The world today is faced with the challenge of climate change, food insecurity, and energy demand. Sustainable management of ecosystems is essential to effectively addressing these issues. When the resilience of a drylands ecosystem is impaired, and it does not return to the expected levels of service supply after the stress is removed, degradation and desertification may occur (Adee et al. 2005). An ecosystem can be described and presented on a map in terms of the following characteristics: (a) types of ecosystems, (b) major land use, (c) vegetation cover type, (d) vegetation cover, and (e) plant species and biodiversity indices.{/showhide}	»Type of ecosystem	MEA classification
	»Major land use	Mapping based on exiting classification systems (e.g. Corine)
	»Vegetation cover type	Mapping based on Engelen and Wen (1995) land use/vegetation cover classification
	»Vegetation cover	Aerial photographs or remote sensed images classification
	»Biodiversity indices - cropland
	»Biodiversity indices - grazing land	Shannon index
	»Biodiversity indices - forests & shrubland	Shannon and Weaver index
Land cover{showhide title="»more details ..." changetitle="«more details ..." closeonclick=true}Land cover is crucial factor which affects soils dynamics including erosion control, water redistribution over and within the soil, and soil microbial activity. Surface water runoff is greatly controlled by vegetation which can be readily altered in hilly areas depending on climatic conditions and the time of the year. According to the UNCCD (10-Year Strategy Plan), land cover has been included as an indicator for assessing the land desertification risk and the implemented measures for combating desertification at the national level. The methodology to describe land cover that is proposed here is to derive a land cover map based on CORINE data.{/showhide}	»Land cover based on CORINE	CORINE land cover map
	»Land cover using Landsat 5
	»Landscape pattern analysis

Components of the human system	Characteristic/variable	Common assessment methods and techniques
Population structure and dynamics	»Population magnitude and change over time	Population time series, time-graphs
	»Age and sex structure	Population pyramids
	»Birth and death rate	Birth, death, fertility rate
	»Elderly index	Ratio of persons aged 60 years or older to 100 persons under age of 15
	»Dependency ratio	Dependency Index
	»Net migration	Number of immigrants and emigrants of an area over a period of time
	»Population density	Population km-²
Economic structure and change{showhide title="»more details ..." changetitle="«more details ..." closeonclick=true}The economic structure of a region is described in terms of the distribution of employment, output, income basically among the economic sectors present in the region. Therefore, the first concern is the industrial (sector) classification system used in a country. Usually, they are common among countries to allow for international comparisons. The level of sectoral detail varies with the aim of the study and the availability of data. The most commonly used classification (primary, secondary, tertiary) is very coarse and problematic; however, most often data are found according to this classification. In addition the economic structure of a region is described using value-added and investments (sometimes reported also by sectors), trade flow analysis, coefficient of specialization and concentration and the land value. {/showhide}	»Employment; Output; Income; Value-added; Investments; Trade flow	Graphs and descriptive statistics
	»Regional industrial specialization	Gini-Hirschman coefficient
	»Location quotient technique	Degree of export orientation to one or more economic sectors
	»Coefficient of specialization	Degree to which a local or regional economic system specialises in one or more economic sectors
	»Coefficient of localization	Tendency of economic sectors to prefer certain locations
	»Land values	Graphs, descriptive statistics, maps of distribution of land values by location and use
Social structure and change {showhide title="»more details ..." changetitle="«more details ..." closeonclick=true}The social structure of a region is described in terms of the nationality profile (of locals, international and domestic migrants), educational profile and literacy rate, employment to population ratio; unemployment, employment profile, quality of life, poverty, land ownership and tenure, NGOs active in the area, professional organizations, other formal and informal groups.{/showhide}	»Educational profile	Graphs, charts, descriptive statistics
	»Nationality profile
	»Employment-to-population ratio	Ratio of youth employed (15-24 years) to total population
	»Unemployment rate	Unemployment rate
	»Employment profile	(a) wage and salaried workers; (b) self-employed workers; (c) contributing family workers
	»Quality of life	QoL indices
	»Poverty	Head count index
	»Land ownership and tenure	Tables
	»NGOs active in the area, Professional organizations, Other formal, informal groups	Tables
Governance	»	Administrative structure; National, regional and local policies; national and regional laws
	»Land use structure and change	Types of land use
Physical infrastructure	»Housing, road networks, energy networks, communication networks, land terraces	Tables and graphs. Descriptive statistics
Social infrastructure	»Schools, hospitals and other health service, community centres, other	Tables and graphs, descriptive statistics

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How to prepare a storyline

2012-06-20T12:33:56+00:00

Author: Eleni Briassoulis

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{xtypo_alert}Editor's note: Source D711-aG. To be revised when more details are available.{/xtypo_alert}

This storyline template is to guide the detailed presentation of the profile of the SES for each of the states through which it has passed. It shows how, for each period, the state of the system (basin of attraction, domain) is described in terms of the range of values of selected characteristics of the biophysical and human system components (or, of the characteristics of the components of the three capitals).

Historic period {showhide title="»more details ..." changetitle="«more details ..." closeonclick=true}Note: the start and end points of each period need not necessarily coincide with the beginning and end of decades; the duration may be a shorter or longer time interval depending on what is appropriate for the area.{/showhide}	1950-70	1970-85	1985-2000	2000-present
Rest of the world (EC and international level)	Suggested headings: Environment (LEDD) Population Economy Society Land use Responses to LEDD Institutions/Policies (selected) Dates are added where available	Suggested headings: Environment (LEDD) Population Economy Society Land use Responses to LEDD Institutions/Policies (selected) Dates are added where available	Suggested headings: Environment (LEDD) Population Economy Society Land use Responses to LEDD Institutions/Policies (selected) Dates are added where available	Suggested headings: Environment (LEDD) Population Economy Society Land use Responses to LEDD Institutions/Policies (selected) Dates are added where available
Country	as above	as above	as above	as above
Larger administrative region 1	as above	as above	as above	as above
Larger administrative region 2	as above	as above	as above	as above
Study site (region)	as above	as above	as above	as above
Community 1	as above	as above	as above	as above
Community 2	as above	as above	as above	as above

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How to assess capitals

2012-06-20T12:35:56+00:00

Authors: Eleni Briassoulis, Claire Kelly, Geoff Wilson

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{xtypo_alert}Editor's note: Source D711- aH. To be revised as assessment of capitals methodology is developed.{/xtypo_alert}

The various methods to assess natural capital, economic capital and social capital are outlined here.

Components of natural capital{showhide title="»more details ..." changetitle="«more details ..." closeonclick=true}Natural capital is the natural environment from which emanates the goods and services that sustain life (IISD 2008){/showhide}	Characteristics (variables)	Operational measures	Assessment method/ technique (or data source in the case of available secondary data)	C	G	F
Climate	Preciptation Temperature Aspect	Rain height Degrees C Aspect class	Direct measurement, climate databases (P,T), extrapolation from data of nearby stations , extraction from maps (aspect)	X	X	X
	Climate quality	Climate quality index	ESA, UNEP or BGI	X	X	X
	Aridity	Aridity Index	UNEP or BGI	X	X	X
	Rainfall seasonality	Rainfall seasonality index	(SI) Walsh and Lawler (1981)	X	X	X
	Evapotranspiration	Potential evapotranspiration	ETo by Thornthwaite or Penman-Monteith method as modified by Allen	X	X	X
Water balance		Actual evapotranspiration	CROPWAT model (FAO); FOPAR, other models	X		X
Soil	Soil depth	soil depth (cm)	Measurements in the field or from secondary sources	X		X
	Soil type	soil type		X		X
	Soil texture	Soil texture		X		X
	Slope gradient	soil gradient (%)		X	X	X
	Soil Organic matter	Soil organic matter content (XX)		X		X
	Soil Quality	Soil Quality Index	Soil mapping ESA methodology	X		X
Water	Water quantity	Quantity (cu.m.) of fresh water from surface and ground water sources	Various assessment techniques or secondary data
	Water availability in the soil	Hydrological soil balance	Models	X		X
	Water quality	Water quality indices	Various assessment techniques or Secondary data	X
	Water balance	Water balance	CROPWAT model (FAO); secondary data sources	X		X
Vegetation	Vegetation quality	Vegetation quality index	ESA methodology	X		X
	Land cover	Land cover type (%)	CORINE or other source	X	X	X
	Vegetation cover	Plant cover type (% or pixel unit)	Vegetation maps, NDVI, aerial photographs, supervised classification of satellite images	X	X	X
	Vegetation productivity	Pixel unit NDVI	NDVI	X	X	X
	Eco-pastoral value	Palability and rarity of community species	Community plant composition		X	X
	Pastures spatial pattern	Connectivity, patchiness, fragmentation	Pasture plant cover classes		X
	Forest biodiversity Forest naturality	Landscape indices Percent protected areas	Landscape fragmentation index Forest types complexity			X
	Biodiversity	Biodiversity indices	Protected areas maps and year of institution; Shannon and Weaver diversity ind.	X	X	X

Components of economic capital{showhide title="»more details ..." changetitle="«more details ..." closeonclick=true}Economic capital is durable stock or assets that provide flows of services over time.{/showhide}	Characteristics (variables)	Operational measures	Assessment method/ technique (or data source in the case of available secondary data)	C	G	F
Produced capital	Quantity of production Or Value of goods Value of services	GDP by sector (please avoid the use of the three sectors – primary, secondary, tertiary; use more detailed sectoral classification) Added Value by sector Exports by sector Employment by sector Number of enterprises (farm and other enterprises)	Standard Accounting Measures
Financial capital	Subsidies Remittances Bank deposits Disposal income	Subsidies Remittances Bank deposits (savings) Disposal income	Secondary data sources
Landesque capital	Irrigation systems; terraces; ditches; dams, wells, etc.	Number, area covered, length, volume, density (#/sq.km.) Condition
Physical capital	Factories, farm structures, greenhouses, roads, railways, etc.	Value of factories, farm structures, etc. Or other measure (e.g. surface, length, density) Condition
Technology	Presence of various types of technologies by sector (farming, transport, electricity, telecommunications, manufacturing, etc.)	Value, quantity or other measure of available technologies Quality measures
Animal capital (Livestock)	Number of animals Types of animals	Number of animal heads by type
Plant capital?	Olive groves, orchards, cereals, etc.	Area or value of olive groves, orchards, etc.; no. of trees
Forest capital?	Forests by type?	Area or value of forests by type?

Notes:
1. Care should be taken to avoid double counting; e.g. the value of physical capital should not include investments that are counted under ‘technology’ or ‘landesque’ capital.
2. What is missing from the Table above, and will be further elaborated, is the structure of the economic system; i.e. the contribution of the various economic sectors to total regional income and employment as well as the linkages among sectors, within and across regions, that determine the qualitative characteristics of economic capital (it is measured by means of indices such the coefficients of specialization, the location quotient and other elaborate measures).

Social capital – components, characteristics, operational measures and assessment technique
devised by Claire Kelly based on (Stone 2001) with contributions from Geoff Wilson, Theodoros Iosifides and Thanasis Kizos

In order to encompass the various dimensions of social capital within the LEDDRA approach, an aggregate and a specific concept of the term are used.

Definitions:

Social capital as an aggregate term:

Social capital, as an aggregate term, is, therefore, comprised of complex social processes, political arenas, institutions, regulations and cultural factors. It includes human capital (the skills and knowledge available in a society), cultural capital (society’s historical memory and experience, the arts, or ideological standpoints of a society), social capital (connectedness, trust, reciprocity and exchanges) and institutional capital (organisational ability, institutions, trust in institutions and processes) (Ostrom 1990; Adger 2000; Parnwell 2007; Cutter et al. 2008; Bunce et al. 2009; Berkes and Folke 1998; Bryant 2005)

Social capital as a component:

Social capital, in a narrower sense, is defined as a resource to collective action. It concerns the ability and willingness of community members to participate in actions directed to community objectives and to processes of engagement. Its key features are social norms, networks and trust. Social norms are informal rules that condition behaviour in various circumstances. Social networks are interconnected groups of people who usually have an attribute in common. Trust is the level of confidence people have that others will act or are expected to act as they say, or that what they say is reliable (Developed with the Cooperation of Theodoros Iosifides and Eleni Briassoulis).

Note:
(* - Grootaert and van Bastelaer (2001; p.5) refer to two types of social capital; ‘structural’ social capital which facilitates knowledge/information sharing, decision-making and collective action through established roles, social networks and other social structures supplemented by rules, procedures and precedents; and ‘cognitive social capital’ which refers to shared norms, values, trust, attitudes and beliefs. I haven’t included the distinction here, but it could be made.)

Components of social capital	Characteristics	General Operational Measures (relevant for all land themes) (Assessment techniques should be primarily qualitative
Human capital	Structural demographic components	Primarily qualitative, supplemented by quantitative Standard measures of population dynamics including age-sex structures and rates of in- and out-migration. Population dynamics may result in balanced or unbalanced populations and/or age-sex structures which provide opportunities for, or conversely limit, possible future development trajectories.
Human capital	Knowledge, skills, competency, experience	Primarily qualitative, supplemented by quantitative Measures of the proportions of various levels of formal qualifications/education (years in education); levels of practical and vocational qualifications and skills. Breadth and depth of available knowledge and skills. Years in employment. Existence and use of LEK. Knowledge, skills, competency and experience may be formally or informally obtained and held; held collectively or individually and may be shared or transferred between individuals/groups/generations or may be fixed.
Cultural capital	Attitudes, beliefs and spiritual aspects	Qualitative Measures of embodied, objectified and institutionalised aspects of belief, spirituality and culture. LEK related to local taboos and rituals associated with the use of natural resources. Measures of spiritual values accorded to natural capital assets, functions and processes. Attitudes, beliefs and spiritual aspects may be informally developed or formally learned; may relate to individuals, collectives or groups and may be transferred between groups/individuals/generations or may be fixed.
Cultural capital	Community identity	Measures of the quality of the built environment (including architectural quality); perceptions of individual agency and ability to effect positive change; Measures of the engagement of young and old in community life; measures of individual and collective ‘happiness’. Community identity may be informally experienced or may be formally embodied in civic groups and institutions; may be associated with individuals and/or with specific groups; may be spatially and temporally homogenous or heterogeneous; and may be passed on between generations or may be fixed.
Social capital	Connectedness, networks and groups	Qualitative Measures of the equity and openness of networks and groups to all individuals, the extent of conflict within and between networks and organisations and the mechanisms used to manage such conflict. Networks and groups may be open, closed, formal, or informal. Relationships between members may be dense or sparse. The temporal intensity and spatial density of networks may also be dense or sparse. Measures of the nature and extent of individuals willingness to, and actual, participation in various types of social organizations and networks (formal and informal); the diversity of those networks; and equity and legitimacy in selecting members and leaders (includes issues of power distribution). Membership may be homogenous or heterogeneous in terms of member type and access to power and decision-making structures; may be informally or formally constituted and bounded. Networks may include actors representing a range of spatial scales (horizontal (bonding), vertical (bridging) or non-linear (linking)); and may cover single issues or multiple issues ranging across multiple spatial and temporal scales.
	Trust	Qualitative Measures of trust in neighbours (familiar and personal trust), community members (social trust) and also in service providers, ‘officials’ and strangers (civic trust). This category also includes institutional trust; trust in the effectiveness of public organisations to perform effectively
	Reciprocity and exchanges	Qualitative Measures of whether individuals have worked together and/or with community groups and other organisations for collective benefit or in response to a crisis, and also the consequences (if any) of failing to participate. Reciprocity and exchanges may be between specific individuals (direct) or may be made on behalf of others (indirect); may be in made in place of monetary payment (in-kind) or other obligation (in-lieu) and may be made immediately or may be made based on a future expectation of return (delayed).
Institutional capital	Common rules, norms and sanctions	Qualitative Measures of contentment with the equity and fairness of governance structures at multiple spatial levels (includes aspects of power). Measures of the existence of equitable and clear land tenure and resource ownership and access rules which facilitate sustainable land management practices. Measures of levels of consensus over issues and collective actions. The extent of access to information and communications infrastructures, and the ability to access such information. Commitment to abide by voluntary and statutory rules and social norms, even when these go against individual interests. Measures of individual perceptions of ability to influence both local events and wider policy processes. Common rules, norms and sanctions may include formal or informal agreements between individuals and/or groups; may be locally specific or have more general applicability; and/or may operate at single or multiple spatial scales.

Table. Critical ecological, economic and social functions and corresponding characteristics and components of the three capitals

Function	Critical characteristics (variables) of the associated capitals
Ecological
Regulation of hydrological processes	Soil (soil quality) Vegetation (vegetation quality)
Regulation of regional surface energy balance	Vegetation (vegetation quality)
Primary production	Climate (climate quality, rainfall seasonality, aridity index) Soil (depth, type, slope, quality, fertility) Water (quantity, quality, availability in the soil) Vegetation (vegetation quality)
Trophic relationships Decomposition, nutrient cycling and nutrient retention Feedback processes	Vegetation cover class connectivity Vegetation productivity Vegetation self-organization Secondary succession, response to disturbance, Response to stress?
Economic
Production of goods and services Trade (domestic, international)	Level of production Level of services Value of goods Value of services Subsidies Remittances Other Irrigation systems; terraces; ditches; dams, wells, etc. Value of factories, farm structures, etc. Investment in technologies by type (which type?) Animal, plant, forest capital

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How to assess critical functions**

2012-06-20T12:41:58+00:00

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{xtypo_alert}Editor's note: Text for this article to be derived from D122-2, (D222-2, D322-2){/xtypo_alert}

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How to assess impacts (including policy impacts)**

2012-06-20T12:42:42+00:00

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{xtypo_alert}Editor's note: Text for this article to be derived from D121 (D211, D321){/xtypo_alert}

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How to model evolution of a SES over time**

2013-08-05T13:05:24+00:00

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{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 5Aug13: Source D122-4 (D222-4, D322-4).{/xtypo_alert}{/f90filter}

How to assess lower level properties**

2012-06-20T12:45:47+00:00

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{xtypo_alert}Editor's note: Text for this article to be derived from D122-5 (D222-5, D322-5) {/xtypo_alert}

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How to assess system level properties**

2012-06-20T12:46:27+00:00

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{xtypo_alert}Editor's note: Text for this article to be derived from D711, D121, D221, D321, D122, D222, D322, D123, D223, D323, D712, D713, D50{/xtypo_alert}

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How to assess socio-ecological resilience**

2012-06-20T12:46:59+00:00

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{xtypo_alert}Editor's note: Text for this article to be derived from D711, D121, D221, D321, D122, D222, D322, D123, D223, D323, D712, D713, D50{/xtypo_alert}

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How to assess the fit of responses to LEDD**

2012-09-06T08:47:58+00:00

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Content sources: D123, D223, D333, D713.

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