-- Alento River Basin SES

General description of Alento River Basin SES

2012-09-07T06:30:32+00:00

Authors:	Gianni Quaranta, Rosanna Salvia
Editors:	Alexandros Kandelapas, Vassilis Koutsoukos, Jane Brandt

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 11Feb13: Source D131-3.3{/xtypo_alert}

Climate

The study area is characterized by a relatively temperate climate with mild winters and hot but not humid summers. The area has a Mediterranean climate, temperate with moderate rainfall, especially inland. The amount of annual rainfall is variable. As for temperature, the hottest month is August whilst February is the coldest. The values for mean monthly temperature vary from 8° to 27°C. July has the maximum values calculated on evapotranspiration.

Topography, geology and soils

The landscape of Cilento today still preserves traces of its tumultuous geological past, a past that has played an important role in shaping the current stratigraphy of southern Italy. External Units include Alburno-Cervati-Pollino Unit and Monte Bulgheria Unit, which shows examples of various different formations. Internal Units include Liguride units and the Cilento Group that represents the sequences that are typical of the region. The evolution and morphology of the Cilento region’s countryside is characterised by strike-slip and thrust tectonics with clear geological and kinematic indicators of tectonic activity. This activity has led to the vertical fragmentation of large blocks of the main rock massifs.

The principal units of structural morphology are found in the limestone relief of Mount Cervati, the Mount Chianello – Vesole – Soprano – Sottano ridge and the complex mountain chain of Mount Bulgheria. The terrigenous reliefs found in Mount Sacro, Mount Centaurino and Mount Stella. Between these two areas there are also areas of relative depression associated with Miocenian synorogenic formations. An evaluation of the structural elements shows lineaments with faults that displace structures with a NW-SE direction and NE-SW.

{tip
Alento region and communities}{/tip}

Almost 70% of the area is characterized by coastal hills, at the end of the alluvial plain and the alluvial valley crossed by the Alento River, which makes up around 8% of the area. Around 30% of the territory has an altitude between 300-600 m, 25% between 150-300m and just under 22% between 0-150m. The most common aspect is Southwest, making up more than 15% of the area, followed by West and South, both at around 14%. The most prevalent slope value is 30-50%(30% of the area), followed by higher slopes, at above 50%. The class of slope gradient between 25% and 35% covers 57.1% of the area.

Categories of Landforms identified are level land, slopping land, steep land and land with composite landforms. In the study area, 1607 examples of active landslides in the territory were found, affecting and area of 2940 hectares. The area’s susceptibility to landslides is linked to the geological and morphologic characteristics of the site.

Flysch parent materials cover 71.5% of the total area, followed by alluvium (9.2%).

The area consists primarily of moderately fine textural classes (60.5% of the area), followed by fine textured (20.8%).

Soils are generally moderately deep (60-100cm) (57.2% of the area) or moderately shallow (30-60cm) (18%). The class of rock fragments between 20% and 40% covers 71.6% (39.404 hectares) of the total area. Well-drained soils cover 69.3% of the total area.

Hydrology

The hydrographic network of the area, crossed by the Alento River, is based essentially on two principal watercourses whose waters flow directly from the steep rocky ridges into the bottom of the valley. This particular hydrographic structure, together with the presence of plastic soil, favor land surface degradation that leads to slope instabilities. There are a number of water bodies extending along the area.

Around 120 sinkholes have been surveyed and catalogued in the area, all surveyed are located on alluvial plains and contributing to the water body of the Alento Plain. These sinkholes shouldn’t be considered part of a single underground body of water. Water circulation inside the Alento River basin has been significantly influenced by the construction of numerous weirs and dams that have altered the natural speed of water flow. Of particular significance is the “Alento System”, at the very heart of which is the dam located in Piano dellaRocca. There are several uses for the water: Drinking water, Irrigation, Industrial Use, Un-Treated Water, Hydro-Electricity. Some ecosystems have been identified on the basis of morphological characteristics and the vegetation cover present in the area: Inland water, forest, dryland, mountain, cultivated and urban ecosystem. The transitions in land use registered over the years have not affected a considerable part of the area, but the variations in land cover have been contained and affect only specific categories of land.

Population

Whilst on a regional scale population is increasing, the rural areas, like Alento, are affected by depopulation. Population density has consistently decreased over the years.

According to the ageing index for the townships in the Alento area, the area’s population is ageing significantly, and more so than in the Campania Region. Birth rates are falling and so is the number of young people.

The total dependency ratio decreases less in Alento than in the Campania region as a whole. The elderly dependency ratio has a higher increase in the Alento area whilst the youth dependency ratio again decreases less in the Alento area than in the region of Campania.

Significant migration is directed to the Alento region, although the inflows of non-EU migrants has been decreasing since 2005.

Employment, economy and infrastructure

Total employment in the area decreased by almost 8% in the decade 1991 – 2001.The number of people employed in agriculture falls consistently whilst employment in industry and the other sectors is on the increase. The percentage of Value Added to base prices for 2002-2005 shows significant fluctuations.

The percentage of graduates in the literacy rate increases consistently. Employed population has increased both in terms of percentage and in total numbers of people in employment. The number of people employed in family businesses remains more or less stable whilst the remaining categories fluctuate much more. The HDI for Campania, and all southern regions, shows values increasingly nearing the national value.

The only professional organization that operates inside the study area is Coldiretti, located in Vallo della Lucania. Coldiretti is one of the principal organizations of Italian farmers nationally and also in Europe. Other organizations in the Alento area are FondazioneAlario, Associazione Cilenvallo, GalCilentoRigeneratio, Park communities, Mountain communities and the Alento Water Consortium. The structure of the Italian administrative system is based on the state, regions, province, municipalities and mountain communities. Most of the farms (93%) are owned by farmers.

The majority of houses in all the townships are located in built-up residential areas along the coast, as a result of the expansion of tourism and other service industries.

The road network in the study area consists principally of the state run coastal road, the strada provinciale and the strada statale.

Alento is poorly connected to power distribution networks. Broadband coverage is limited.

In each township there is one or more state nursery and elementary school with the exception of the smallest towns. All townships also have a middle school whilst there is a high school only in Castelnuovo Cilento and Vallo della Lucania. The Vallo della Lucania hospitals are part of the Health District 70.

{tip
Protected areas}{/tip}

Particular LEDD issues in the Alento River Basis SES

The extension of land in various classes has changed, increasing in some classes and decreasing in others. Woods surface (Mediterranean Pines and Cypresses) is decreasing. Urban areas are expanding, particularly along the coast, due to expansion of tourism and other service industries.

Slope instability is the most easily detectable land issue in the Alento study area, mainly due to its visual impact and its severe biophysical and socio-economic impacts. Reduction of used agricultural surface area, crop selection, socio-demographics and intense depopulation show a progressively declining rate of human intervention which this area so relies upon. Abandonment of agricultural areas, colonized by shrub vegetation, vulnerability to fire and the delicate phase of transition that agricultural land is undergoing at the moment, all contribute to the problem. The de-activation of farming is closely linked to depopulation and to the ageing of the population. Landslides in the Alento study area are mainly triggered by human interference to slope stability.

{tip
Utilised Agricultural Area and Wooded Areas - trend 1929-2000.
Source: (data from Italian National Institute of Statistics,
elaborated from the Authors)}{/tip}

{tip
Risks of landslides}{/tip}

Economic drivers hold a significant importance in conditioning both crop system and agricultural practices. Although Alento olives are PDO (Protected Designation of Origin), the sector has not been immune to structural crises in olive industry.

Policy drivers are also critical. The abandonment of traditional extensive farming practices affects the environment, the local landscape and the social-cultural geography of the area. Half of Alento’s land surface is eroded by more than 0.5 ton/ha, almost 12% of which is over 10 tons per hectare.

Soil sealing, has not thus far been a major cause of concern. However, several increasing trends point to an increasing risk of soil sealing (and higher levels of salinisation and nitrate pollution):

a flux in population moving from inland areas to coastal areas
the intensification of agriculture
the expansion of the tourist industry.

Evolution of the Alento River Basin SES

2012-09-07T06:30:06+00:00

Author:	Rosanna Salvia
Coordinating authors:	Constantinos Kosmas, Giovanni Quaranta
Editors:	Alexandros Kandelapas, Jane Brandt

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 10Mar14: Source D132-5.1.{/xtypo_alert}

Three principal periods have been identified in the evolution of the Alento River Basin SES since the mid-20th century.

Migration and efficiency imperative transition (1950 to 1970)

This covers the immediate post-war period until the end of the 1970s. The Alento area experiences rural out-migration towards booming industrialized centres but also, towards the end of the period, sees the dramatic reorganization of the agriculture sector in terms of modernization, size and economic weight in the local economy.

Local off-farm jobs period (1980 to 2000)

This time is marked by the growth and consolidation of the tourism industry responding to the demands of the mass tourism market. Of significant impact to the agricultural sector in this period are the changes to water resource availability through the construction of a series of dams in the area which also boost other industries and the construction industry in particular.

Land abandonment transition (2000 to date)

This is characterized by the beginning of a structural crisis in the olive sector which has reached an alarming state of decline and whose problems are further aggravated by the Single Common Market's reform of subsidies with the introduction of the Single Farm Payment Scheme.

More details ... each period is fully described in the following articles

Migration and efficiency imperative transition (1950 to 1970)
Local off-farm jobs period (1980 to 2000)
Land abandonment transition (2000 to date)

Migration and efficiency imperative transition (1950 to 1970)

2012-09-07T06:59:01+00:00

Author:	Rosanna Salvia
Coordinating authors:	Constantinos Kosmas, Giovanni Quaranta
Editors:	Alexandros Kandelapas, Jane Brandt

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 20Mar14: Source D132-5.1.{/xtypo_alert}

The starting point for analysis of the SES Alento is the economic, social and environmental situation of the immediate post Second World War period. At the end of the 1940s the local territory had remained relatively un-changed since the previous century, especially in terms of infrastructure and modernization of economic activities. Cilento was an isolated and marginalized area in economic, civil, cultural and social stasis.

Assessment of natural, economic and social capitals

Natural capital
Assessment	The climate capital is characterized as moderate (CQI=1.44) and uniform thoughout the SES. From 1950 – 1980 the average precipitation levels are around 1,200 mm a year, whereas, temperatures vary from a maximum of 35 °C to a minimum of -5 °C. Average temperature is around 16 °C. The estimate of soil capital is therefore carried out by intersecting the GIS soil map with the slope gradient map. Only 16% of the study area's surface is characterized by soil capital values that are "high" and "very high", whilst 43% of the surface area falls in the "moderate" class. The value of water capital is moderate (=2) accounting for water scarcity of water in the summer months but also good quality. {tip Map of soil capital value in the Alento Study Site}{/tip}{tip Map of vegetation capital: 1960}{/tip} In absolute terms Alento loses almost 22% of its managed land. However, in relative terms, the remaining land shows a higher quality. The weight of very high capital increases in the period while moderate capital declines. The share of high vegetation capital, instead, remains unchanged. The combination of these two opposite trends informs the assessment of the vegetation capital as moderate.
Critical functions	Although there are no available data for different crops, the great progress in farming technology (fertilizers, pest control, mechanization) which is seen in this period suggests that there is significantly increased production. Regional surface energy balance (assessed based on VQI) is characterized by a moderate vegetation quality index.
Critical variables	Soil capital, water capital and climate capital change very little. The critical environmental fast variable for the period is land use. Surface dedicated to agriculture is reduced.

Economic capital
Assessment	Farms are highly fragmentized and provide little profit beyond subsistence. Employment in the agricultural sector decreases. The number of farms remains fairly stable but utilized agricultural surface (UAS) drops by almost 50%. During this period, Alento sees a considerable urban expansion, largely as a result of processes started in decades before (continued reclamation of marshland, the eradication of malaria, the expiration of various leasing agreement contracts affecting large areas of land in the study site and the investments in construction made by those local residents that had emigrated). The value of produced capital in this period is considered quite high. Financial capital is high. Substantial financial resources are channeled under the Marshall Plan and the Cassa del Mezzogiorno (Fund for the South). Subsidies for the agricultural sector are high (olive and cereals). Landesque capital is also high owing to the large number of terraces present. Landesque capital however, starts to decline as the agricultural sector begins to shrink. Positive water resource management in the area also leads to significant improvements to the irrigation network, albeit in the form of small, rudimentary man-made canals ("levata"). {tip Rudimentary irrigation canals or "Levata"}{/tip} The value of physical capital in agriculture is moderate, based on the degree of complexity of cropping systems, ranging from simple systems (e.g. arable land), to livestock production and intensive horticulture. Physical capital in infrastructure rises significantly as The Cassa del Mezzogiorno (Fund for the South) undertakes major public investment in schools, aqueducts, sewers and other essential sanitation works. Mechanization is introduced but only becomes consistently used in the mid 1970s.
Critical functions	Production is affected by contrasting drives: the contraction of cultivated surface area and increased yield of production and market integration.
Critical variables	All the economic variables behave more or less as fast variables during the period with the exception of landesque capital and animal capital. Produced capital changes radically, especially because of the reduction of the agricultural sector both in terms of surface area and numbers of employees. Subsidies tied to the introduction of CAP, huge investment entering the country for post-war re-construction and the increase in remittances all contribute to the rapid and significant increase in financial capital. Physical capital also varies significantly because of the large-scale re-construction and modernization of the road network. The SES sees a substantial increase in use of technology as part of the drive towards increased productivity which characterizes the period.

Social capital
Assessment	Population decreases as emigration is supported by policy; the rural exodus is seen as a remedy for the economic difficulties of the countryside and even necessary for national development. The drive for literacy and primary education in rural areas which began in the 1930s was brought to fruition by the 1950s and now plays an important role in rural exodus trends. This period is characterised by strongly centralised, top-down policies with minimal bottom-up participation.
Critical functions	-
Critical variables	All components of social capital change rapidly, with the exception of institutional capital. Demographic, human, cultural and social capital variables are transformed as overall population declines, urban population increases and population distribution by altimetry varies significantly (with out-migration affecting the upland areas particularly). Improvement in literacy contributes to rural depopulation. Institutional capital changes at a much slower pace. Central decision-making bodies, supported by state policies for intervention works and the application of the CAP, are no different from the political structure which characterised the previous period and are managed by the same social actors, mainly wealthy land-owners.

Main LEDD problems and responses

Soil erosion is not a significant problem as the abandonment of olive groves and arable crops and the expansion of wooded areas provide ample vegetation cover. Documentation and literature available, particularly for the 1950s, mostly cite the problem of land availability and poor access to land.

Responses to soil erosion, relating to lack of agricultural land follow two principal lines. On one hand emigration is encouraged and, on the other, a reformation of land distribution is promoted under Agrarian Reform and economic development favoured by interventions financed by the Cassa per il Mezzogiorno (Fund for the South). These responses are not connected to a LEDD problem per se but rather to the economic and social poverty of the area but have contributed in large part to the re-structuring of the agricultural sector and to the abandonment of traditional farming systems.

Soil sealing emerges as a problem as urbanization intensifies. The period contains the beginnings of two phenomena which would later intensify: the diffusion of tourism activities and new forms of housing (independent family villas instead of traditional apartments and communities of houses in town centres).

Policy context
{xtypo_alert}AK: to check that implementation, impacts and effectiveness of selected policies are discussed in this text. Look at D142 to see if there is any additional information. {/xtypo_alert}

Main policies affecting the area revolve around agriculture and agrarian reform. A series of legal changes between 1944 and 1952 cover:

(unsuccessful) attempts private and public land concessions to farmers in cultivated or insufficiently cultivated lands, on the condition that beneficiaries create cooperatives.
re-distribution of land previously held by wealthy land owners to farmers with modest plots, aiming aimed at a fairer re-distribution of land and increasing productivity. The reform is partly funded by the Marshall Plan and includes increased access to capital to buy machinery, irrigation equipment etc although these provisions remain non-implemented in the Alento due to increased farm fragmentation.

Similar policies are continued and expanded after 1957 in the context of the EEC's Common Agricultural Policy. During the 1960s a series of plans focuses on works to improve the local territory, on land capital/Landesque capital and on technology capital.

The 1950s also see the beginning of important policies to fund public investment to improve economic and social development in the South of Italy. The basic means of intervention is the Cassa per il Mezzogiorno (Fund for the South) in 1950 operating in parallel with agrarian reform. Although previously unprecedented investment occurs in the agricultural sector (modernisation, new technologies) resources are directed to selected "strong areas", with already completed land reclamation projects and irrigation networks. "Weak areas", like the Alento, receive little, unstructured and poorly focused support.

The Committees for "Un-employment" and "Greater qualifications, higher education and occupational training of un-employed workers" are set up in 1946 and 1947 respectively. Poor results lead, in 1948, to the creation of a new Central Commission for "Job Creation and Assistance to the Un-employed" that is in charge of educational and training programs for the un-employed, focusing on forestry, farming, re-forestation and construction of public works. These programs are spread throughout the local Alento area, especially construction projects in the coastal areas and re-forestation programs inland. The programmes produce little lasting impacts, do not go much beyond their function of social assistance and also fuel a form of patronage.

In 1970 the Italian regions are granted extensive regional autonomy, beginning a long process of acquiring increased competence for regional councils. Competence for agriculture is granted in 1977. This reform brings a broadening of the political scene with the arrival of new subjects and the adoption of programming procedures.

Properties of the system
{xtypo_alert}AK: to check if there is any further relevant information in D133{/xtypo_alert}

Natural capital: Potential available for change in the Alento area has been assessed by comparing the requirements of specific land uses (cereals, olive, orange and vines) to natural capital components available. Furthermore, for each crop identified the areas where the various crops are cultivated are shown, outlined in black.

{tip
Areas suitable for cereals: 1960}{/tip}{tip
Areas suitable for olive plantations: 1960}{/tip}

{tip
Areas suitable for orange plantations: 1960}{/tip}{tip
Areas suitable for vine plantations: 1960}{/tip}

With reference to drought disturbance, robustness is assessed as generally moderate, although areas with vines and olives include more surfaces with low and very low resistance compared to cereal fields and orange groves. The assessment of diversity was carried out though the calculation of the Shannon's index using land cover types. The values of the index are: 0.2 (1960); 0.07 (1970); 0.17 (1980).

In the beginning of the period, the continuation of the traditional mixed cropland/husbandry system signifies a redundant system. This property nevertheless diminishes as previously pluri-active farmers abandon their farms or convert to monoculture.

Connectedness follows a similar pattern. From agricultural systems which vary between tightly connected, where traditional farming systems olive groves + husbandry are diffuse, to moderately connected, where olive groves and vegetable crops under low planting are diffuse, to loosely connected agricultural systems, seen on the plains.

The degree of openness of the agriculture system in Alento varies during this time. Taking into consideration the nutrient balance of inputs (e.g. fertilizers, manure) and outputs (commodities transported outside the system) a degree of openness is found in the plains in the first part of the period, although it varies moving from the plains inland.

Economic capital: As traditional agricultural systems are replaced by new systems with extensive use of external inputs (fertilizers, pesticides, mechanisation) robustness falls from high in 1960 to low in 1980. With regard to diversity, the Herfindall index for the local units within the SES show decreasing values and a lack of concentration of industry, predominately in productive sectors.

The agro-industry component of the economic system (one of the most important in the area and linked with cropland) is low redundant as one type (olive processing) represents 78% of the sector in 1970. The tourism sector shows an increase in redundancy from low to moderate. Openness is high due to high emigration rates and improved trade.

Social capital: In terms of potential available for change, a substantial part of the population chooses emigration as the main life option. The SES shows a low degree of robustness in terms of its ability to find a solution to its main problem, namely disparities in land resource distribution. In order to calm social unrest, higher level instruments (agrarian reform) and models (modernization of agriculture) are implemented with limited effectiveness, resulting in a lowered redundancy.

Diversity increases, particularly in the form of younger generations leaving the traditional family-centered societal model and land management regime to pursue more "modern" lifestyles. It is crucial in the transformation of the region and the definition of responses within the SES to the problem of poverty. The departure from traditional rural models also brings a reconfiguration of connectedness in the study site; tight community ties (bonding social capital) are profoundly changed by the new organisation of the local job market and the rural exodus which modifies the demographic structure (mainly affecting males).

Socio-ecological resilience
{xtypo_alert}AK: to be added, source: D133{/xtypo_alert}

Socio-ecological fit of the dominant response to LEDD
{xtypo_alert}AK: to be added, source: D133{/xtypo_alert}

Local off-farm jobs period (1980 to 2000)

2013-08-05T10:27:41+00:00

Author:	Rosanna Salvia
Coordinating authors:	Constantinos Kosmas, Giovanni Quaranta
Editors:	Alexandros Kandelapas, Jane Brandt

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 20Mar14: Source D132-5.1.{/xtypo_alert}

Assessment of natural, economic and social capitals

Natural capital
Assessment	The climate quality index (CQI) in this period is 1.44 (moderate) and is uniform throughout the SES. The soil capital shows no significant change, retaining its predominately moderate value. The value of water capital increases substantially to very high, after the construction dams in the 1980s and 1990s, solving problems of water availability and quality. Vegetation capital is generally moderate or very high.
Critical functions	Primary production is characterized by serious problems linked to the introduction of a new, more productive oil cultivar (Leccino). This cultivar produces lower quality oil and brings a range of phytosanitary problems to the area, forcing farmers to increase the use of pestisides. Furthermore, the diffusion of irrigation systems in intensive olive farming areas creates the problem of precocious enlargement of the drupes, which subsequently attracts more insects leading again to increased use of pesticides. The construction of a series of dams significantly impacts on the hydrological cycle, however, a quantitative assessment is not available.
Critical variables	The fastest environmental variable is water capital. The construction of the series of dams increases the quantity and quality of water available in the SES. Vegetation capital increases due to the diffusion of irrigation farming. Soil and climate components do not register substantial changes.

Economic capital
Assessment	GDP at factor cost (1991) is €499.15 million, equal to about €11,000 per capita. Although the numbers of people in employment remains fairly stable, employment in agriculture sees a sharp decline. Substantial financial resources are pumped into the area under the interventions from the Cassa del Mezzogiorno and later by Territorial Pacts. Agricultural subsidies are high at the beginning of the period due to the presence of olives and cereals. The value of landesque capital increases substantially in the period, owing to investment in six dams, progressive substitution of surface irrigation with sprinklers, drip irrigation and micro-irrigation. Physical capital remains at a medium value level for the entire period. Reductions in arable land, livestock (bovine) farming and intensive farming are compensated by increases in farms with permanent crops and higher quality of structures used in farms. The amount of mechanized equipment in farming continues to increase but actual use of agricultural machinery does not follow the same trend. This is due to the nature of subsidy schemes because increased machinery capital is not necessarily translated into mechanization or changes in cultivation practices. The diffusion of more sophisticated irrigation methods also adds to the increase in technology to moderate. {tip Agricultural census 1982, 1990 and 2000 (Source: ISTAT)}{/tip} The greatest plant capital values are seen in the pastures, meadows and woodland which extending over an area of 19,650.68 ha, 19,335.74 and 16,627.59 respectively for the years 1982, 1999 and 2000.
Critical functions	The drive towards increased production and intensive farming practices persists. The relative value of agricultural production continues to decline in relation to other productive sectors.
Critical variables	Produced capital increases thanks to increased agricultural production. Landesque capital undergoes a substantial transformation due to the diffusion of irrigation networks and the construction of the dams. The new model of intensive agriculture and irrigated farming also increases the level of technology. Financial capital changes less rapidly than in the previous period due to the stability in subsidy level which compensates for reductions in remittances. Access to credit increases.

Social capital
Assessment	Population figures remain fairly constant. Migration dynamics remain fairly stable and principally concern internal migration with residency changing from one township to another. Literacy and education levels increase. As far as cultural capital is concerned, this period is a "settlement" phase involving a certain cultural awakening. From the beginning of the 1990s, re-discovery of old traditions and values expands including research into local culture and traditions, continuation of those traditions and greater environmental awareness and conservation, particularly with regard to tourism. The constitution of the National Park of Cilento and Vallo di Diano, the LEADER program and recognition of PDO (Protected Denomination of Origin) status for Cilento olive oil, all promote the significant natural value of the local area and give the community impetus to protect the rural landscape. This cultural shift spills over into the tourism industry, as the development of inland areas leads to a re-branding of the area from coast-only mass-tourism to a destination with local traditional products and customs. This shift is centered around the concept of the "Mediterranean Diet", following related research and experiments conducted in Cilento itself. Beyond its nutritional value the diet entails cultivation practices, food processing and preparation methods, consumption habits (days of rest, holidays etc) as well as landscape and resource conservation and professional activities. The degree of connectedness including the quality and quantity of networks and communication between stakeholders is marked by two developments in the early 1990s: the creation of the National Park which is accompanied by heated local debate the introduction of participative planning instruments for territorial development, namely the Patto Territoriale. The territorial pact represents a significant manifestation of social capital but also a completely new form of institutional capital: created in the aftermath of several decentralisation reforms (1990-1993) it entails a bottom-up approach to local planning. Beginning in 1995, the Territorial Pacts (TP) are "contracts" signed by the public administration and townships in a given area to direct private and public investment. Two pacts cover the study site: the General Territorial Pact of Cilento and the Specialised Territorial Pact for Agriculture and Fishing of Cilento. Although several public works are financed through pacts, in stake-holder workshops in the Alento area it is pointed out that often local communities lack strategic vision and excessive financial weight is given to infrastructure for agriculture which proves fruitless due to high management costs.
Critical functions	(See social capital discussion)
Critical variables	The components of social capital remain stable after the great transformation in the previous period. Demographic capital is also stable as out-migration slows. Cultural capital and social capital are also fairly stable. Institutional capital, on the other hand, can be considered a fast variable. The creation of the National Park of Cilento and Vallo di Diano introduces a new level of governance to the SES and the implementation of negotiated planning substitutes the centralised governance model. Both developments rapidly and significantly impact the Alento SES.

The main LEDD problems and responses

During interviews, local stake-holders and particularly farmers, point to the emergence of the problem of poor maintenance of dry-stone terraces and, as a result, the rate of soil erosion increases. The high rates of land and farming practice abandonment from the previous years begin to show their effects.

Although mechanization and the reduction in manual labour is viewed as a means to increase competitiveness in the agricultural sector (particularly olive farming), it becomes a negative response as it accelerates the process of dismantling of terraces and, at the same time, increases soil compactness with positive feedbacks on LEDD.

Other responses include the intensification of crop systems through the enlargement of surface under cultivation and the planting of new olive groves on low-lying land often including the introduction of new cultivars. These responses have proved negative in that they favoured the low maintenance or total abandonment of traditional terraced olive groves in-land and exert increased pressure on cropland on the plains. Subsides from EU CAP are a positive response, supporting the maintenance of olive groves in-land where costs of production have begun progressively to diminish profitability.

Soil sealing is another serious problem in the area. The increase in compact urban areas in terms of surface is more contained than the previous period whilst diffuse urbanisation increases by 65% due to persistent pressure from the tourism sector and the continuing trend for the construction of independent houses.

The founding of the Park goes some way to containing construction, with strict constraints on soil and water resource consumption for buildings not providing essential public services. Many people, particularly those involved in construction view the Park as a huge obstacle.

In the early stages of the implementation of the Park Plan those areas with no local planning regulations see a complete suspension of building works. This ensures that all town councils in the area swiftly adopt urban planning regulations.

The main policies in effect during the period relate to agriculture, and particularly olive oil and cereal subsidies in the context of the Common Agricultural Policy.

In 1985, the new national agricultural program provide 16.500 billion lira for the 1986-1990 period. Under EEC Regulation no. 2261/84 olive oil producers are differentiated according to average production, with large producers (more than 500 kg of oil per year – initially 100 kg) receiving a subsidy in direct proportion to the amount they produced. Small producers (less than 500 kg – initially 100 kg) receive aid per tree. This regime gives rise to widespread fraud in Alento and throughout the EU.

Initial reforms to the system focus on applying the production subsidy to all producers (notwithstanding the fact that 60% of farmers received the tree payment). The shift results in a considerable loss of income for small producers, since low-input farming, as practiced in Alento, includes years of poor harvest (normally every second year in dry land olive farming).

Throughout the 1990s interventions focus on the modernisation olive farming and the rationalisation of groves. Funding is also made available for the purchase of equipment to facilitate harvesting and introduce mechanization (direct support for investments). These interventions have significant impacts on processes of degradation, as has already been described. Restrictions on imports from outside the EU continue.

Attempts at reform since the late 1990s have been hampered by the lack of an adequate olive data-base which has repeatedly hampered the effective management of the CAP regime.

Support regimes for arable crops change drastically in 1992 (MacSharry reform), including a shift from production subsidies to area payments. The de-valuation of the lira at that time produces a system of over-compensation for cereal production.

In the 1980s a new process of integration between agriculture and tourism begins which represents a response to the loss of competitiveness of the sector and, therefore, an alternative solution to preserving agriculture in marginal areas and those areas most at risk of LEDD as well as providing a response to the growing awareness of sustainability and environmental concerns by consumers. The Park promotes the diffusion of agri-tourism as a sustainable use of the local territory. In the Campania region agri-tourism is first regulated by regional law in 1984 which supports initiatives to improve tourism infrastructures in rural areas and in the vicinity of archaeological sites, to produce and market local products, to preserve local traditions. These changes and policies run parallel to negotiated planning.

Properties of the system
{xtypo_alert}AK: to check if there is any further relevant information in D133{/xtypo_alert}

Natural capital: Potential available for change remains relatively stable and at moderate levels.

{tip
Areas suitable for cereals: 2000}{/tip} {tip
Areas suitable for olive plantations: 2000}{/tip}

{tip
Areas suitable for orange plantations: 2000}{/tip} {tip
Areas suitable for vine plantations: 2000}{/tip}

Robustness also remained predominantly moderate.

{tip
Soil water storage capacity and drought resistance in cereals: 2000}{/tip} {tip
Soil water storage capacity and drought resistance in olives: 2000}{/tip}

{tip
Soil water storage capacity and drought resistance in oranges: 2000}{/tip}{tip
Soil water storage capacity and drought resistance in vines: 2000}{/tip}

Diversity based on Shannon's Index varies from 0.17 (1980) to 0.2 (1990) and 0.08 (2000).

Redundancy in the form of pluri-activity and agricultural self-sufficiency declines. Specialized agricultural systems dominate. Connectedness follows the same trend with "loosely connected" agricultural system prevailing.

The degree of openness increases along with reliance on external markets for both agricultural inputs (e.g. fertilizers, manure) and outputs as the principal crops (olive, fruit, vegetables) are mainly destined for export markets.

Rapidity is falling to low and moderate, whilst the surface of annual crops, characterised by a high rapidity, decreases. Considering the weight of each class on the total surface a increase in the incidence of the class low rapidity can be seen (going from 59% to 69%) and a significant reduction (from 26% to 13%) in high rapidity.

Economic capital: The agricultural system in Alento continues to show a low degree of robustness due to the need for external inputs (fertilizers, pesticides mechanization) until the 1990s. In the following decade, "greener" measures in the CAP contribute to a modest shift towards farming practices with lower environmental impact.

The food sector plays an important role in manufacturing, representing more than 30% of production in terms of the local unit. The mineral sector is less significant whilst the contribution of recreational activities increases significantly in social activities. 80% of farms are smaller than 2 ha.

The agro-industry component of the economic system is moderately redundant in that two types (olive transformation and manufacturing of other food products) represent between 40-50%. The tourism sector shows a moderate redundancy during the period: tourism activities are diversified and fairly balanced.

The degree of openness of the SES is high because of the effect of population movement (both in-migration and out-migration) and for the flow of goods and services.

Connectedness between the productive sectors varies. The link between the agricultural sector and food processing is high for olives and animal products. About 30% of farmers maintain some off-farm employment indicating some integration with other productive sectors. Farm-tourism integration increases rapidly in the terms of establishments and also in the number of visitors travelling inland. Most produce is sold outside the area.

Social capital: Potential available for change increases dramatically as the agricultural infrastructure (dams, irrigation) provide the agricultural sector with potential. This potential however is only partly realised; residents who remain and returning migrants do not seek employment in agriculture. The same dynamic is also evident in robustness. Its increase is dramatic but comes only at the end of the continued decline of the agricultural sector.

Contributing to the above is the lack of agricultural skills. Agriculture does not lose its importance entirely but younger, more highly educated generations increasingly enter other sectors, especially the service sector. The lack of diversity of skills is also accompanied by a reduction of redundancy of the SES. Agricultural production methods become more simplified and specialized in order to increase efficiency.

As regards connectedness, the SES begins to recuperate elements needed to reconstruct its rural identity and community ties. The Mediterranean Diet and the creation of the Park represent a re-affirmation of the value and importance of the ties which unite the local community and link it to wider spheres of society. The scarce connection between agriculture and tourism can also be interpreted as a high modularity.

Socio-ecological resilience
{xtypo_alert}AK: to be added, source: D133{/xtypo_alert}

Socio-ecological fit of the dominant response to LEDD
{xtypo_alert}AK: to be added, source: D133{/xtypo_alert}

Land abandonment transition (2000 to date)

2013-10-11T08:05:12+00:00

Author:	Rosanna Salvia
Coordinating authors:	Constantinos Kosmas, Giovanni Quaranta
Editors:	Alexandros Kandelapas, Jane Brandt

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 20Mar14: Source D132-5.1.{/xtypo_alert}

Assessment of natural, economic and social capitals

Natural capital
Assessment	The Climate Quality Index (CQI) is equal to 1.40 (moderate) and has stable value throughout the SES. Average annual precipitation levels (2000-2010) are around 1062.61 mm. Average temperature is around 15.91°C and does not show much variation from the previous periods. {tip Surface area of different classes of soil aggregate stability: 1960 and 2010}{/tip} A wide diffusion of collapsed terraces means that soil capital is lower. Soil aggregate stability (ranging from 0 weak to 5 very stable) has changed since 1960. The extent of soils previously classified at 2 has decreases, with a corresponding increase in classes 3 and 4 as a result of spontaneous recolonisation of abandoned agricultural areas. In contast, the extent of the most stable areas decreases because of contraction of pasture and meadows in favour of recolonisatin by shrubs. {tip Soil aggregate stability: 2010}{/tip} {tip Vegetation capital: 2010}{/tip} The value of water capital is very high with regard to both quantity and quality. Vegetation capital attains relatively high values as woodlands expand as macchia (shrub) re-colonises abandoned olive growing areas.
Critical functions	Primary production is dominated by olive production. Depending on climatic and soil characteristics of the area and also on agronomic practices and crop treatment, there is a great variability of agricultural production, ranging from 7,000 to less than 1,000 kg/ha. Regional surface energy balance (classified according to vegetation quality index) is primarily moderate although the increase in Class 1 (low) is indicative of changes of land use since 1960. {tip Surface area (ha) of different vegetation quality: 1960 and 2010}{/tip}
Critical variables	The period's most rapid environmental variable is still land cover due to the continuing decline in utilized agricultural surface, which contracts to 15.000 ha, half of the surface registered in the previous period. Soil capital, although intrinsicly slow, shows dramatic dynamics in this period.

Economic capital
Assessment	In 2009, value added (VA) is €732.56 million (€16,352 per inhabitant), about 5,000 higher than in 1991. The contribution of agriculture to total value added is low (5%) although almost double that for the Campania region (2.8%). Financial capital is moderate; levels of subsidies remain relatively constant under the single payment scheme, accompanied by measures under the Regional Rural Development Plan and in particular Measure 216 (terrace re-construction). Landesque capital significantly deteriorates due to collapsing terraces. Intervention to re-construct terraces affect a very small percentage of the territory. Physical capital declines to low value due to a decline in the number of farms with permanent crops and, especially, those with horticultural crops. {tip Physical capital (Source: ISTAT Agricultural Census 2000, 2010)} {/tip} The level of technology remains constant although the reduction in horticultural farms indicates that it is a sector in decline, with further investment in technology forthcoming. Animal capital remains almost stable with just few adjustment in livestock.
Critical functions	Agricultural production and its associated economic value shows a decreasing trend. Land abandonment has resulted in a lowered production quantity and the general drop in prices causes a contraction in the value generated by the sector. Compounding these problems there is a lack of processes of valorisation in the local olive farming sector. The change from coupled to decoupled government subsidies leads to an overall reduction in agricultural surface and a greater concentration of production in the areas best suited to intensive farming (irrigated flat land which allows use of agricultural mechanization). Production is becoming more intensified (in terms of density of machinery, mechanization, irrigation, variety) in areas of irrigable flat land.
Critical variables	Produced capital associated with the agricultural sector continues to decline rapidly, as does Landesque capital. The state of dry stone terraces also declines because of the continued abandonment of ever greater areas of land. Plant capital is also reduced as a consequence.

Social capital
Assessment	Although population remains relatively constant, analysis shows immigration from surrounding highlands and migration of the young and better educated towards larger cities. The level of education has increased substantially but possibly also levelled off; interviews with local stake-holders indicate reluctance to pursue university education because of the lack of jobs. Human and cultural capital continues to be characterised by the re-discovery of cultural identity. Various initiatives by young people, in the agri-tourism sector and in high-quality agricultural production, are signs of cultural change as much as economic change. In addition, a collective vision seems to be emerging, slowly displacing entrenched individualist mentality. The establishment of a territorial bio-district network linking organic farms (around 400), producer organisations, local administrations, bio-restaurants, eco-tourism operators and consumers (via the GAS Gruppi di Acquisto Solidale – Solidarity Base Purchasing Groups) is a good case in point. Social and institutional capital are also undergoing mutually reinforcing qualitative changes. As the territorial planning is strengthened (Territorial Pacts, PIRAP, PIF, LEADER program) so is collective decision making fostering new networks, better communication between stakeholders and inter-community relations. Nevertheless, the SES is characterised by a complex and intricate structure of governance involving a high number of small institutional bodies to complement formal administrative units (Region, Province, Town Councils). The overall political structure is a labyrinth of actors and overlapping jurisdictional zones. In addition, as pointed out in stake-holder meetings, Alento remains under-represented in regional politics due to current election laws and the main cities (principally Naples) attract most, if not all, public expenditure.
Critical functions	A crucial indicator of the social role of the agricultural sector in the Alento is the negative rate of generation change in farming, which is only recently beginning to see positive signs of growth.
Critical variables	The demographic variable that shows a little change is the age structure of the population living the area, while the most of the other remain practically unchanged. The fluctuations and characteristics of migratory flows are signs of instability in the SES and the inability to find solutions to the problems relating to unemployment and alternative production.

Main LEDD problems and responses

The problem of collapsing terraces is one of the principal cases of soil erosion in the SES. Regional studies based on Wischmeier and Smith's Empirical Soil Loss Model (USLE) and on large scale applications of the PESERA model prove erosion is wide-spread and increasing, especially in the terraced land nearest residential areas. According to the application of the PESERA model, half of Alento's land surface is eroded by more than 0.5 ton/ha, almost 12% of which is over 10 tons per hectare.

Landslides can be used as a further indicator of soil erosion; active landslides affect 2,407 hectares of land surface in the Alento area, in 1322 sites.

Positive responses targeting the problem of soil erosion are: (1) subsidies to restore disrupted terraces and (2) initiatives aiming to increase olive oil profitability. The negative response is land abandonment, whereas mechanization and management of oil-mill waste water are considered as both negative and positive measures for soil erosion processes.

The biggest challenge facing plains and coastlines is soil sealing, reducing the surface area available for uses such as agriculture and severely impairing, or even preventing ecological soil functions. Soil sealing, especially on the plains, is dependent on three interconnected processes. The first is a flux in population moving from inland areas to areas with greater socio-economic opportunities, better infrastructure, and more services. The second is the intensification of agriculture through building of greenhouses and the third is the expansion of the tourist industry.

The positive response to soil sealing is the implementation of a regional law fixing the maximum amount of agricultural land that could be covered by greenhouses, whereas the duration of sealing (i.e. the decision to keep covered the greenhouses all over the year) is considered as a negative response.

The main policies in effect are:

the Single Payment Scheme: decoupling of subsidy payments from production to the producer allows a stability of payments but may fuel land abandonment; farmers abandon production as they receive subsidies irrespective of harvest.
Rural Development Plan Measures (mainly measure 216 financing (non-productive) capital works on land): stone terrace re-construction and maintenance initiatives aiming at increasing olive oil profitability including the PDO scheme, quality assurance, agri-tourism and farmer markets.
Oil mill waste water regulations establighing procedures for disposal.
The regional law for greenhouses, imposing a limit of 70% of the total surface of the farm.

Properties of the system
{xtypo_alert}AK: to check if there is any further relevant information in D133{/xtypo_alert}

Natural capital: The potential available for change in the Alento is assessed comparing the requirements of specific land uses (cereals, olive, orange, vines) and the natural capital components available. More than 50% of the area is suitable or very suitable for olives and cereals, whereas, the largest part of the area is not suitable for oranges and vines.

{tip
Areas suitable for cereals: 2010}{/tip}{tip
Areas suitable for olives: 2010}{/tip}

{tip
Areas suitable for orange plantations: 2010}{/tip}{tip
Areas suitable for vines: 2010}{/tip}

Robustness also remained predominantly moderate.

{tip
Soil water storage capacity and drought resistance in cereals: 2010}{/tip}{tip
Soil water storage capacity and drought resistance in olives: 2010}{/tip}

{tip
Soil water storage capacity and drought resistance in oranges: 2010}{/tip}{tip
Soil water storage capacity and drought resistance in vines: 2010}{/tip}

Diversity based on Shannon's Index varies from from 0.08 (2000) to 0.2 (2010).

Redundancy in the form of farms with mixed cropland/husbandry systems declines dramatically; only 75 out of 5,136 farms have such a system while the vast majority specialise in permanent crops. Connectedness follows a similar trend with the prevalent agriculture system being "loosely connected". Moderately connected areas, with olives + vegetables under low planting, remain predominately in the areas nearest inhabited centres (hobby agriculture).

Openness is relatively high as producers rely on external markets for both agricultural inputs (e.g. fertilizers, manure etc) and outputs as the principal crops (olive, fruit, vegetables) are mainly destined for export markets.

Rapidity is generally low, but with significant variations between land cover.

{tip
Rapidity classes (Source: ISTAT 2010)}{/tip}

Economic captial: The Alento agricultural system continues to show a low degree of robustness due to the need for external inputs (fertilizers, pesticides mechanization). However, stake-holder interviews would suggest that robustness is slowly increasing thanks to the positive effects of cross-compliance measures linked to Single Payment Schemes which imposes a certain degree of environmental conservation (Landesque capital and physical capital mainly) and also the diffusion of organic farming practices in the area. The degree of robustness can, therefore, be considered as medium.

{tip
Robustness: 2010}{/tip}

Social capital: Regarding potential available for change, a substantial recession in the socio-ecological system as a whole seems to be taking place. All the capitals show a worsening trend. The robustness of the SES is not sufficient to counteract the processes in motion. Despite the increased diversity of the system (especially in terms of institutional capital) the overlapping levels of governance in the prove to be insufficient to solve its problems. Also the redundancy and connectedness of the SES seem to be increasing (multiple activities within farms and the construction of networks like the bio-district) but, again, these initiatives prove very vulnerable to internal and external changes to the SES and cannot go far enough to counteract the negative trends.

Socio-ecological resilience
{xtypo_alert}AK: to be added, source: D133{/xtypo_alert}

Socio-ecological fit of the dominant response to LEDD
{xtypo_alert}AK: to be added, source: D133{/xtypo_alert}

Optimal response assemblages, policy recommendations for Alento River Basin SES**

2012-09-07T07:00:50+00:00

{xtypo_info}This article is currently restricted to project partners only, who should »login to access it.{/xtypo_info}{f90filter RESTRICT SHOW}

{xtypo_alert}Editor's note 6Sept12: Source D133.{/xtypo_alert}

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